Est-ce bien encore nécéssaire de présenter ce destin unique, celui d'une modeste cité-état issue de quelques collines de bergers qui devint en l'espace de quatre siècles un empire millénaire ? Certainement si on se limite à présenter l'évolution de l'outil qui permit à cette nation de dominer les autres : Une armée modelée par l'expérience du combat, les échecs plus encore que les succés. En effet peu connue est l'armée Romaine de l'aube de la république et de la Rome Royale, celle des 300 "celeres", cavalerie aristocratique qui sera l'ancêtre direct des equites patriciens, et que dire de cette infanterie hoplitique typique des cités-états grecques ? La phalange Romaine se battit durant presque plus de trois siècles avec cet instrument qui paraissait alors d'une incroyable efficacité... Ce fut avec le désastre de l'Allia en 390, l'anéantissement d'une armée de citoyens sans doute trop confiante par une armée gauloise impressionante, puis celle, non moins terrible, des fourches Caudines, humiliation suprême d'une défaite sans même combattre, face aux habiles montagnards Samnites... Marcus Furius Camilius, dictateur, sut mettre de l'ordre dans cette armée, distinguant 6 classes et fondant le fameux triplex acies, lequel évolua jusqu'à disparaître avec la réforme de Marius... Dans CATW, la faction Romaine passera par ces évolutions, au moins celle existant en 300 av.jc. Rome en ce temps n'était pas encore maître de l'Italie. Les Samnites, les Etrusques, les cités grecques du Bruttium et de Campagnie, Syracuse, les Carthaginois ou les Gaulois au nord, tous constituaient encore un sérieux péril, même pour une fière république comptant sur ses alliés et ses exploits passés pour faire face une fois encore : En effet, Gellius Egnatus, élu stratège des tribus Samnites, est en train de fomer la plus redoutable coatition contre Rome. Avec Syracuse, dans l'ombre, il rassemble Gaulois et Etrusques, et se propose de soulever toutes les cités d'Italie récemment tombées dans l'orbite de Rome. Il se propose de mettre fin à son hégémonie en Italie. C'est là que vous intervenez...
ROMANI
This was 2310 years ago...
ROME. The longest empire the old world has never known... It began between seven hills, and in the middle of this, a swamp. Romulus and Remus, sons of a king which was directly born from "the last trojan" according to a popular legend common to several civilisations. In fact, what we see everyday about the roman army, the widely spread an popular vision of them, is largely an imperial, trajan wars version. But in catw, starting in 300 bc, you will see this army evolving from the early camilian six classes to the pre-imperial late legionaries... If you manage to survive until there... That would not be a piece of cake, however. Starting which just three cities, according to what was the roman sphere of influence in 300 bc, you will soon have to deal with strong and powerful opponents, wave after wave, with your few protected, complex, camilian spearmen defence armies. Marcus Furius Camilius was the great first reformator of the roman republican army. It was reformed, centuries before, by one of the kings of Rome, of etruscan descent, the one, which organized the hoplites phalanxs and spearmen along several classes, in a complex system, which was simplified by Camilius after the crushing defeat of the Allia facing the gauls, which led to the sack of Rome. Later, while beeing defeated whithout fightning and humiliated in the Caudine fourchs by the Samnites, the last remants of the ancient phalanx were gone off, and the whole army was then more mobile, and gone to progressive simplification and homogeneity, with a stunning pragmatism. The second great reform is generally called "polybian" -because it is known about polybius "histories" about the punic wars. It is generally undestrand to have been progressive, after the pyrrhic wars and before the first punic war. Then the great Scipio gave lots of improvements to this army, turning it a professional war machine in spain. The famous Zama victory on Hannibal was a superb show, giving a new sight of what the roman army would become later, under Marius, the most famous reformator, which turned it into an homogenerous, full professional army.
INTRODUCTION : THE ROYAL ROMAN ARMY UNDER SERVIUS TULLIUS :
What we known about this semi-legendary period was written by Livy during the Augustean Principate. He was the official, appointed historian and then charged to describe the roman rise since the origin, partly in a propaganda goal, and greatly enhance the historical figures who makes this history, in order to magnify the actual "first citizen". But despite of these backsides, Livy's Ab Urbe condita remains the most important source about ancient roman history, if not -for some periods- the only one. The rule of the seven kings of Rome since the death of Romulus was probably intended as the way to explain the great expansion of the early city in a tale, intelligible fashion. The early Roman army is still debatable. According to the origin of the population of Rome, which was constantly reinforced by nearby submitted citizens, the armament and wargear was Latin. That mean also, with the etruscan influence, that citizen-soldiers from Alba Longa (the ancestor city of the founders of Rome) were probably equipped in a hoplite fashion. Lesser wealth citizens were more lightly equipped. Romulus himself was not a reformator, but his own early troops of shepherds were probably fightning in a light maneer, as ambushers and raiders. Slings, maces, spears were probably current, bronze armors, swords were reserved to the wealthiest of them. Romulus in later royal period founded his own cavalry, the Celeres (meaning "fast"), ancestors of the equites class, counting 300 chosen horsemen. The hoplite equipment in 600 bc was considered as the best a citizen could afford, so it was probably naturally reserved to the wealthiest of them. Servius Tullius re-organized roman citizens in five classes "censi", base on their wealthiness. The first one was based on those who have 100 000 as and beyond. This class was composed of forty centuries of "young men" and forty of "older men" hoplites. The first were keeped as a city guard, the last, to fight in campaign. It was -nearly 1000 years after- the same principle which was used -at an empire scale- for the Comitatenses and the Limitanei. They were equipped as hoplites, having an aspis, greaves, cuirass, helmet, all in bronze, a spear and a sword. Two centuries of "workers" were added to their service, for siege engines. They were unarmoured and given no weapon. The Second class was for citizens with 75 000 to 100 000 as revenue. They were 20 centuries of all ages, giving a scutum instead of an aspis, a helmet, no cuirass (but probably a cardiophylax), greaves, spear and sword. They were probably fightning on the wings of the hoplite phalanx, as the third class. This last was similarly composed but citizens were above the 50 000 as cens, and were given no greaves (and probably not cardiophylax). The fourth class was roughly equivalents to the rorarii, 20 centuries of 25 000 as citizens which were given a spear and "darts" (light javelins). Livy says nothing about their helmet if they have one. The fifth class was probably the ancestor of the camilian "accensii" : Men with slings and stones, wich were beyond 11 000 as of revenue, and composed 60 centuries, including two for the cornicen (war trumpets). The very last "century" was unlimited and composed of all left citizens of all ages, the poorest. They were discharge of any military task. The cavalry was strong of 12 centuries ("knights" of 150 000 as and beyond), and reinforced the three centuries of Celeres with three more, probably the ancestors of the singulares. The 12 first equites centuries were knights, and their horse was paid by the treasure, for 10 000 as. They had to pay all their equipment, but they were also rewarded by the primacy of their suffrage, as the first class citizens. (Livy, Ab urbe condita, book one, I,43).
ROME - THE EARLY CAMILIAN ARMY
ACCENSI : These were the poorest of the poorest, the sixth and last class of censite capi, citizens decribed as surnumeraries, in this early roman army which was more a defensive citizen force than a campaign legion... As described Livy, this army was accostumed to short campaigning, rarely lasting for more six month, on short distances against regular enemies, as the Faliscans, Eques, Sabines (at the beginning), and this army was campaigning far away each year, as the complex alliance system was built, encompassing larger aeras in central italy. Accensi can paid anything as equipment, and were free of cense, due to their poverty, hence the sense of their name. They are supposed to be armed, but they fight with "fortune weapons", wood sticks, stones, or even their bare hands ("pugnate"). They are in the very last rank, behind the rorarii, themselves behind the triarii, as an emeregency reserve, and can act as a desperate reinforcement if needs... It is clear that this kind of infantry was required only in desperate defence, never in campaign, as their military value was really limited.
RORARII : This class was stationed behind the Triarii, acting as a reserve. They were described either as spearmen, and javelinmen. But they were formed after old but poor citizens, thos which were not well equipped, but experienced enough to have some military value. The least rorarii were in fact probably equipped with a second-rate helmet, a large wood scutum, and the cheapest equipment, a bunch of javelins and a spear. They were disciplined, but probably to old to fight with the first rank, and were given the task of reinforce the triarii as spearmen, and sustain the fight while hurling their javelins, although their almost last position, far from the real battle, rendering this task dubious.
TRIARII : The best foot units in the whole roman army, these were the only troops almost unchanged since the etruscan kingdom army, three centuries before. The Camilian hoplites were modelled after the elite hoplites, rosed amongst the wealthier citizens of the plebeian class, generally also veterans. They were given the classic "epilektoi" hoplite panoply, with a large aspis (covered with bronze), a greave, a bronze breastplate, a xyston, a gladius, and an impressive helmet, of the "apulo-corinthian" type which was a symbolic corinthian helmet, the famous headgear device beeing a pure ornamental stylisation, as the crest and feathers. From the crest to the foot, a triarii was a typical greek armoured hoplite. Their task was to hold the line and fight if the two first lines were pushed up and pressed too much. They were 30, half the number of standard units, and formed "walls of pikes", opening "gates" between units to allow the former principes and hastati to find refuge and reformed behind them. This was a common feature, as described first bu Livy when talking about the last battle between the Romans and Latins, although that these triarii were given a scutum instead of an aspis, and kneeling while presenting their spears. This was in fact, the later triarii equipment and way of fightning.
PRINCIPES : The early principes were experienced citizens, which saw at least several campaigns. They were middle-aged, better equipped than hastati (relatively wealthy plebeians), with a bronze breastplate, and later, a chainmail. This bronze breastplate was not well-known, it could have been either a complete cuirass (even an old father-to-son given relic), or a much smaller bronze plate as most of the italic troops at this time, and hastati, "protecting the heart". It was an economical device. These men were, at this time, inheriting the ancient second-class citizens, and beeing equipped with a sword, a spear, the famous "hasta" which was slightly smaller than the greek doru. They were spearmen with an scutum instead of an aspis (described by Livy as "longshields"), and probably have a lately a greave too on their left foreleg. Their helmet was probably of various models, with feathers or plume, or both, but made to giving them an extra height impression. The celtic montefortino helmet was more common from the IVe century bc, becoming the "trademark" of principes and hastati for centuries.
HASTATI : These not-so-young citizens which composed the Hastati could afford a good equipment for relatively low-class plebeians. They were, as their name said "hasta bearers", perhaps to give a brief decription of what they were, at the beginning, "spearmen", and nothing else. The spear was an economical equipment, and it's not sure that all hastati could be given a sword. These were, at least in the very early period, light troops armed and fightning with their spear. The question that they could have been equipped with javelins to throw before the assault, is still debatable at this time. As Rome became richer, these citizens see their equipment beeing better at time. They were probably unarmoured, except perhaps a small Cardiophylax, "heart-protector". A large wood scutum and a helmet were probably sufficient. These citizens were really the backbone of all roman armies. They were on the first rank, to learn and even to die while fightning. They were given the task to tire the enemy's arm and then retire, if this was not sufficient, to allow the Principes to end the game. The hastati historically were the third, and fourth Censi class citizens in the Servius Tullius reforms. Except their shield and a helmet, they were unarmoured.
LEVES (low-def skin): Before the velites (which replaced the former three low-class censite capi), an extra light infantry was attached to each maniple of hastati. These were the leves, litteraly the "levies". Beeing poor citizens, they were not well-equipped, having no helmet, greaves, nor armour, but a round parma, which was much more lighter than the scutum, and more economical to produce, used also by various light troops and equites. If the hastati themselves could not afford a sword, it is dubious that these leves did. They were probably equipped with a cheap armament, a spear, and a biunch of javelins, as they are described clearly as skirmishers. They had to add an extra edge to the hastati, and opening the battle, as sustain and reinforce the hastati's closefight task, but were probably not very effective in closefight due to their poor equipment, both in protection and assault.
EQUITES EQUO PUBLICO : These were named after the original Equites, from the patrician class of "knights", inerited from the old royal celeres cavalry, 300 horsemen. This number, both symbolically and for shortage reasons, was the number of horsemen attached to any legion. As the recruitment was only restricted in this aristocratic circle, when several legions were recruited at once, this became seriously unsufficient. During italian grand campaigns, the romans relied on allied legions (itali socii), which were given much more cavalry to fill the gap, as they were oprating on the flanks of the roman legion. But soon a new recruitment basis was ordered, and a new class of "plebeian equites" appeared, called the equites "equo privato" (see later). The Equo publico then became a small fraction of the whole roman cavalry in time. As Polybius decribed them, the early equites were poorely equipped, with no armor, a long sword (spatha), a fragile, one hand manned, one edged spear, a small and light roundshield (parma). As according to Livy's accounts of sveral early republican battles, it was a current feature that these equites charged and then fought dismounted, both to give an example -a task and a privilege of the patricians- and to boost the morale of ordinary troops. These cavalrymen were first intended to be fast - the original etruscan "celeres" meaning nothing else. It is also probable that the romans were a commoner people who likes to fight traditionally on foot, which was more common in the hilly and woody terrains of the latium, and even the tradition of reek-etruscan city-states which relied on hoplite infantry, not on cavalry. Campanian cavalrymen were, on the contrary, quite better armoured heavy horsemen, highly praised by the romans as allies. At time, the famous equo publico became more heavy, replacing their old-style bronze cuirass by a flexible chainmail...
EQUITES EQUO PRIVATO (low-def skin): These were late equites recruited on a new basis to fill the gaps, when several legions were needed, with 300 equites each. Unlike previous equites, which were members of the patrician knights, all plebeians which could afford a horse and equipment. Thise solution was probably not seen with a fancyful will by the patricians, as a plebs tribune project. These plebeians were wealthy, however, although still not well equipped than the patrician equites. These were probably given no armour at all, and second class light thessalian helmets and parma, or spatha, but they became more numerous in time, beeing eventualy to a ten-to-one ratio. They succeed, at last, to fill the gaps, although the roman legions were still lacking dramatically any cavalry. After marius reforms, the equites were replaced by local auxilia cavalry units, recruited amongst the best local horsemen (see after).
EQUITES SINGULARES (EARLY GENERAL BODYGUARD - low-def skin). Driven from the more experienced knights, a small part of the cavalry was devoted to the consul or tribune escort, the very early bodyguard of any roman general, which became later the famous praetorians. These early "singulares" were better equipped than regular equites, due to their rank, age, and personal wealth. They could afford a bronze cuirass with pteryges, even greaves. Heavyer ythan regular equites they were not intended for quick tactical moves but to be a reserve force, a close guard, and this equpiment reflects also their mastering of closefight.
ITALI SOCII (FROM 338 to 264 bc)
These "socii" were allied cities of rome, levelled into several grades of tight or less tight links, as the so-called "amici" which was a simple non-agression pact, to an indefectible old alliance as those of the latins. The Latins were partly the origin of the roman people, according to Livy and the legendary early age of Rome, from the king Latinus wich founded the city of Alba longa in the 9th century bc. But after romulus founded the city, these latins, and amongst them the Sabines, were nearly each year in war with the Romans, a single city in the latium. The last battle between the romans and the latin league occured in 338 bc. The latins became after this "socii" until beeing granted the roman citizenship at the end of the civil war. The latins were a constant part of the roman campaigns, and their army was soon modelled on the roman army. According to Livy, the latin league army in 340 bc was virtually a copy of the roman army, both in infantry types and tactics, and officers knew each other almost by name. The "socii later encompass a large number of italic tribes and city-states, which rose to nearly 150 states in 264 bc. It was a serie of bilateral treaty, which van be barely compared as an "alliance" rather than a confederacy, each "socii" keeped more or less his autonomy, but the central obligation of contribute to the roman army while providing well-equipped troops. After the second samnite war, the campanian socii significantly reinforced the roman cavalry while providing its renown cavalry. Due to the lack cavalry due to the small number of equites inside th eroman legion, the socii legions currently shows quite bigger cavalry squadrons in order to fill the gap. Socii infantry was highly diversified, according the the local traditions of the states or tribes. Some were greek-influenced and provided hoplites-like troops, other as the oscans, scutum-armed troops, and inside this, spearmen, javelineers, heavy and light troops. The latin skirmishers for example in 300 bc, were really the inspiration of the future roman velites. Triarii were either scutum or aspis equipped, armors, helmets, differed largely but the cardiophylax was the most common protection. Helmets were either attic, apulo-corinthian, or kugel type, etc... The military organisation was for each consular army to have two "alae" of socii to protect the flanks of the roman legion, on a 2:1 to 1:1 ratio (each one of 17 500 infantry and 2400 cavalry). The main battle was often provided by the roman legions herselves, perhaps for loyalty doubts about the socii... These forces were commanded by the consuls, and Half-sized socii forces by the prateor. The extraordinarii were the best troops of the confederate allies, picked-up to protect the consul, usually 600 cavalry and 1800 infantry. The last one were often used as an elite scouting force, prior to the introduction of the antesignani after the marian reforms.
SOCII SKIRMISHERS : A typical light infantry amongst latin and socii states, these young or relatively poor men were not giving any armour, although a bronze belt, a short scutum, and a negau style helmet. They were skirmishers, using a bunch of javelins and then rush to close combat with their short sword. They were mor versatile and sturdy than roman rorarii, but probably less than hastati.
SOCII SPEARMEN : The spear was always the main weapon as it allows to keep the enemy far from contact, and was affordable. It was also the cheaper main weapon available. These spearmen in fact are really versatile warriors, experienced and skilled, having javelins for attacks, spear for defence, and a spatha straight sword for closer combat, a dagger for finish the job. As a proven and relatively wealthy citizen infantry they were rughly the equivalent of the roman princeps. Highly reliable and with a flexibiity with allowed the most complex tactical movements. They had an armor, usualy the current cardiophylax, a large an strong bronze belt to protect the chest, and sometimes a greave on the right leg, to complete the excellent protection of their large wood and leather covered scutum. Their attic helmet was relatively light and well-protecting. The Samnites, but also the oscans and other italic helmets of this kind were usually crested and feathered to improve their highness and make an impression on the battlefield.
SOCII HOPLITES : This was the most common form of early allied heavy infantry in the nearby allied, in 300 bc. This infantry was a typical citizen heavy infantry, equipped as early triarii and most of italian city-states phalanx units, particularly in northern etruscan states. They were modelled after greek hoplites with the usual panoply, including at that time, an apulo-chalcidian helmet, greaves, bronze breatplate, large aspis, kopis, and hasta. These became less usual between 250 and 220 bc with the strong influence of the roman model in all allied armies.
SOCII LATINI EXTRAORDINARII : They were amongst the very first units recruited as socii in the the latin neihbouring cities. They were all weatlhy citizen hoplites, well-equipped, and formed the bulk of the early socii army. They were a good example of what looked like the ancient Roman hoplites of the Tullius reforms, entirely cladded in bronze, including the large aspis, with brightly colored tunic in red-blue-white. They were the true ancestors of the Camilian Triarii.
SOCII EQUITES : Since the beginning, the few "knights" of the roman republic were unable to fill properly the duties of a cavalry force for the legion. The foot soldiers largerly outnumbered them, roughly ten to one. It was sufficient against neighbouring latin or volsci cities, which were similarly composed, but for the southern italics, especially the campanians, it was largely unsufficient. Once the romans built their alliance system, submitted cities have to recruit huge cavalry units, in order to compensate this roman weakness, beeing on the wings, or "alae". The right wing was generally allocated to the socii cavalry, and it was clearly superior both in quality and quantity. Outside the "extraordinarii", the current socii cavalry was giving the same equipment as foot infantry, including a spear, a sword, helmet and cardiophylax. Socii light cavalry was for a long (before the campanians were integrated) a rather light cavalry, intended to charge several times rather than charge and fight in melee as the roman equites. These were skilled and fast horsemen, able to cope with such tactics. Hannibal knew this and during his battles were he met romans and socii, always gave orders for his cavalry attacking the roman wing, not the socii...
POLYBIAN ROMAN ARMY
The "polybian" army was not especially linked to any member of the senate or general, but it was a progressive reform inside the "triplex acies" system, to deal with the most serious opponents and campaigns that the romans meet during these troubled third and second centuries bc. The new face of the roman army was well described by Polybius, a greek historian. He was an Achaian hostage attached to the famous Cornelii family, preceptor ot the young Scipio Aemilianus, gandson of the famous Cornelius Scipio africanus, the last beeing credited during his iberian campaign for the most deep reforms of the roman army before Marius.
VELITES : This was the only clear unit attributed to scipio's himself, replacing the former camilian system of six classes. Exit the rorarii, leves and accensii of poor value. The velites replaced -grossmodo- the ancient leves, still been attached to the hastati in half-sized units, although clearly used as frontline skirmishers rather than reinforcement troops. The second part of this change was the recruitment, which was clearly based on age rather than on wealthiness. The Velites "fast moving", were equipped as ancient leves with the parma, a wood and leather covered, round wide shield, wearing no armor, but a often a helmet (the wealthiest of them), and the famous wolf or fow pelt which was known to be used by the officers to recoignise those of these youngs was particulary valiant and notable for a promotion. The velites used a bunch of light javelins, and a short gladius for closefight, although this was hastati's task. These javelins were described having a very long iron spearhead possibly inspired by the iberian soliferum. Beeing a velite was both a school of war and courage. Those velites could not be taken as near-unusable troops, they could have broken the terrible gaesate resolution during telamon's famous battle, without any help...
HASTATI : These troops were an evolution of the original camilian hastati. The main difference was their armament, which was no more a simple hasta, but two pila and a gladius. This reflects their upgrade and citizen's better life. They were all equipped with an armor, probably still the ancient and cheap "heart protector", but in time, more could afford -or take to the enemy- the costly chainmail... The early gladius was not the famous "gladius hispaniensis" - copied after iberian straight short swords by Scipio, but it was rather long, atlhough not as long as italic "spatha", probably to the size and shape of a xiphos. The pila were in fact known as two spears, one short oand one long, with a very distinctive shape, intended to pierce a scutum and then, impossible to detach or reuse after. The longer of the two was probably not intended to launch as it was very cumbersome and weitghty, but more to serve as a spear on defence tactics (between the narrow shields, forming a wall), or to manage overhand, as the ancient hasta, in close combat, although the gladius was probably more effective. Their helmet was probably modelled after the cheap and popular celtic "montefortino" model, with a plume or still three feathers.
PRINCIPES : The late principes were better equipped, just as the hastati, and mirroring the former's new equipment : Gladius and Pila. Polybius as Livy and some other authors agreed on the point to say that hastati and princeps were similary armed, but the last were older men, more experienced, and still fight after the hastati,in the "quincux" formations which allowed them to do so since the first engagement, or at least, launching their pila from the distance of a deep hastati formation, on an enemy which just came into contact. The ancient bronze cuirass or "heart-protector" (cardiophylax) breastplate was replaced for a while, by the coslty but flexible chainmail, the famous "lorica hamata" which was used probably also by the triarii soon after -or even before ?, and adopted, as helmets, from the celts. The hastati became the most capable unit in the whole roman army, and the basis after which were modelled the marius legionaries...
TRIARII : The late triarii were no more (probably since 300 bc -as described by Livy) equipped as heavy hoplites with an heavy cuirass and bronze aspis, but used instead the "ecu" or scutum, and the chainmail, sometimes reinforced by a bronze breasplate. But this elite infantry, composed by veterans, was still in charge of the last defence of the whole legion in the triplex acies. They were decsribed as regroup in tight formations, kneeling, with their shield deeply struck on the ground, and their hasta (they became the last to use it), firmly maintained in an oblique position. This was an ipressive, unamovible wall of spears and shields, which could have made an impressive scjock on pursuing opponents. Behind these living fortresses, that even a resolute charge could'nt break, hastati and principes could reform, regroup, an then strike again. That was an impressive system which proven succesful, and probably the best for a non-professional citizen army, that Scipio's enhanced with hard training and deeper professionalism.
EQUITES EQUO PRIVATO (LATE #2 HD SKIN - low def)) : Later polybian equites were all chainmail equipped. It was now a standard, quite mode affordable and procuded in large quantities. Equites were described by Polybius (History, book VI, the roman military institutions, 25): (resuming) In the past, these equites wore a simple tunic, giving them ease both to mount and dismount promptly, but rendered them weak in the closefight. More, their spears were poorely efficient : They were too thiny and fragile, and could be easily broken by hitting everything on the path or by the effect of the horse galloping vibrations(...). Furthermore, only one extremity was giving a spearhead, and once broken after the first blow, it was useless(...). Their shields were covered by beef skin and resembling our ceremonial pancakes(...). As barely supporting any schock, they rendered few services during the charges, and in bad weather, once the rain had softened the leather, these shields were useless(...). That's why by experience the roman horsemen saw themself less well equipped than the greek ones (by comparisons from "magna grecia" cavalry and pyrrhus formidabbe macedonian style heavy cavalry, as samnite, and especially campanian aristocratic cavalry). \n\nIn fact, roman conulare equites (the close bodyguard of the consul) was similary equipped as the triarii, havind a good aspis, strong pike, and bronze armor. Others equites were probably equipped with a small bronze plate or nothing. The 600 Camilian equites were in fact, successors of the 300 Royal "Celeres", an Etruscan style noble cavalry, thes 600 knights beeing appointed to normally two legions (6000 men without velites), as two legions were mustered each year, in these warring times. Later, according to livy, during the siege of Veies in 403 bc, they were exceptionally three classes in this equite ordo, the original 6 centuries of patrician equo publico, 12 additional plebeian equo publico centuries (which all could afford their own horse and equipment), and emeregency equo privato (volunteers receiving a pay). After the pyrrhus wars, and before the punic struggle, equites were more usually equipped with chainmails. This was slightly less efficient as bronze armors, but lighter and more flexible. Lightest Equites were in fact armed as tarentines, with javelins for close-combat, spear and sword. They used the greek-style kopis sword which was more suited for cavalry closefight, but turned to use the longer spatha later. The small rate of cavalry compared to infantry was compensate by socii "alae" containing 900 cavalrymen for the same number of infantry than in a roman legion. After the second punic war, the roman army arose to 21 permanent legions, and the original 600 equites were spread mostly between the equites centuries as officers and singulares bodyguards. The main part, around 6300 cavalrymen, were raised in the first class of volunteers plebeians.
EQUITES EQUO PUBLICO (LATE #2 HD SKIN) : The true "knights" choosed to adopt the lorica hamata instead of the heavy bronze cuirass. Flexibilty and agility were always first on order.
EQUITES SINGULARES (LATE GENERAL CAVALRY #1) : These polybian equites singulares were knight veterans, chosen for their skills. As traditional equites they choosed to fight in melee, and were heavily equipped for that occurence. An iron decorated anatomic cuirass, a good apulo-corinthian helmet, a composite parma, greaves, made them impressive bodyguards, ready to fight on foot when needs.
LIGHT AUXILIARIES
SAGITARII (low def skin): Roman early archers. Named after the famous zodiacal and mythological figure, the early roman archers were nor recruited amongst citizens of Rome, but peasants, hunters from roman mainland, which increased with time. Poorely equipped, these archers were not highly regarded, but still useful as light auxiliaries in some special operations, sieges, and picthed battles when needed. As hunters, furnishing their own equipment, their skills were sufficient as such, although not against more renown archers at this time in the known world, cretans, sardinians, not talking about eastern archers... They were for a long, sufficient in italian operations theater. When overseas operations needs this kind of auxiliary, the Romans relied upon local irregular archers and mercenaries as the cretans.
FUNDITORES : These light auxiliaries were quite common first as improvised slingers amongst the accensi. The sling was a cheap weapon, still effective. There was an ancient tradition of sling used inside the Sabine and Latin miitary inheritance, and later funditores were recruited in the nearby peasantry, on the same basis as the archers. They were not highly praized, but later, while experiencing the deadly shots ot the balearic mercenaries managed by Hannibal, they return in favor, slowly reappared in the roman army, mostly as marius reformed auxiliaries, recruited in the most able populations (numidians, balearics, and other peoples of the mediterranean). In time, as the famous Rhodians, they were given iron bullets instead of stones, and reached a greater range and a better accuracy than never before, becoming a true professional infantry.
ITALIC AOR : ITALI SOCII (FROM 264 bc to 88 bc)
ITALI SOCII EXTRAORDINARII PEDITES : The "extraordinarii" are some well-known elite units recruited by the roman consuls inside the whole allied army and under their direct command. These were a forefront unit, or an elite scout unit. They were recruited amongst hoplitic early units and then, equipped with two heavy javelins instead of the usual hasta spear. They were quite impressive troops, heavy but agile, highly skilled, and much more capable than lighter scouts in close battle. They were designed to find and catch the enemy, became to fight and fix enemy's forces, waiting reinforcements. The Marius Antesignani replaced them in time.
SOCII EXTRAORDINARII EQUITES (low-def skin): Picked-up cavalrymen which were allocated as a consular bodyguard. The roman equites were a few, and generally less well equiped than their italic -and especially campanian- counterparts. They were 600, twice the number of equites per legion. They were also considered as much more valuable horsemen and on of the finest heavy cavalry in the whole peninsula. The Campanians were especially praised as such. Hannibal counted on that while attacking the roman army at Cannae, when he launched his best cavalry against the right alae cavalry of roman equites rather than on the left alae of italic cavalry amonsgt them the famous campanian heavy lancers. These extraordinarii were driven from the best horsemen of various regions, but mostly the campanian city-states, including the rich capua. As macedonian hetairoi, they were a skilled and proud unit, heavily equipped, fightning with spear and sword.
ITALI SOCII VELITES : These allied velites were modelled after the roman velites, and were generally young or poor people learning war through this first-line position which required endurance, agility, and a great courage. They were generally equipped with large roundshields, in wicker or wood, a bunch of javelins, a short sword or a dagger, and wore a simple tunic and boots. Illustrator Anguls Macbride gave a good impression of what they would have been... They acted also exaclty like the roman velites on the forefront. This parallelism of organisation was somewhat a comfortable feature for all roman commanders, which were able to manage these allied armies just as their own legions.
ITALI SOCII HASTATI : Before that the roman organisation was in return, introduced in some allied armies, most of italic warriors were divided between aspis bearers and scutum bearers. The greek-influenced etruscans were clearly users of the aspis, while the southern and central italians (although not greek magna grecia armies) used a scutum, probably inherited by the celts. When the romans adopted it, and then made an impressive sight on other peoples both by their victories, tactics and equipments, a "standard" became generally used, somewhat between the hastati and principes in the kind of equipments. Oscan infantry and samnite one, were scutum bearers, with two heavy javelins, a spatha or long sword, and impressive helmets. This catw italic infantry is modelled after these versatile troops, which were probably the largest part of any itali socii army.
SOCII TRIARII : Italian Spearmen. These italic spearmen were probably still modelled after citizen's hoplites, long after the romans adopted their triplex acies organisation. But the closest allies of the Romans (Sabine, then latins and other neighbouring peoples), soon adopted a similar organisation and equipments. These spearmen were in fact more experience warriors, which were giving an "ecu" (the samnite asymetrical scutum), and an impressive attic helmet. They were used in defence but also in attack with their long spatha and using their spear overhead, just as hoplites.
SOCII EQUITES : This light cavalry was the backbone of any roman consular army, as they largely outnumbered the roman equites. Most of them were lightly equipped, with a tunic or a small breastplate in order to be faster and more agile than later roman equites. They were probably versatile, using javelins, a short stabbing spear and a kopis sword.
SOCII CAMPANII EQUITES : For a while, italian cavalry was considered as superior to the roman equites, especially talking about southern italian units like the famous Campanians. This aristocratic elite was giving no shield but a long spear in the macedonian style for deadly charges, and were -both horse and horsemen-far better armoured and capable than roman equites. This was a very effective cavalry, beeing recruited in large numbers in allied legions to supply the well-known lack of horsemen in the roman legions...
ITALIC AOR : ITALIC MERCENARIES
APULIAN EXTRAORDINARII : These impressive elite swordsmen were usually drawn for socii states to serve as a special consular force. It became a way of fightning and a style of equipment. Elite mercenaries equipped to this fashion could have been ponctually recruited alongside regular units, from non-socii italian states, although many saw also service under samnite, pyrrhic and later carthaginian command.
LEGIO LINTEATI : These late italic mercenaries were elite spearmen-sworsmen recruited after the third samnite war (and assimilation of the samnium into the urbs), they were practical descendants of the famous linteati elite infantry. The Samnite army was a well-organised, but consisted of a powerful core of "chosen warriors", the legio linteati. It was a 16 000 strong unit, of sacred warriors, recruited only on their own prowess or those of their father or ancestors, and had to swear a terrible oath, invoking malediction if they fail or to kill everyone who flee or deserting on the call. This was not a permanent army, but the best equipped, trained and skilled of all recruits. Others units were a 20 000 men lesser statute warriors, and various levies which form the very basis of the whole legions. These Linteati had a distinctive bronze armor covering all the chest, etruscan style helmets with feathers, plumes, crests, and brightly colored tunics and shields. The last were short and asymetric, convex scutums.
ETRURIAN HOPLITES : Etruria was the large region, encompassing the northern part of italy which was not controlled by the boians and other gallic, ligurian or venetian peoples. The Etruscans have an ancient connection with the greek culture, alongside strong local specificities, which were reflected in the armament and equipment of their soldiers. They were nearly all aspis bearers, and the hoplites were still in 300 bc, their main infantry. Etrurian Hoplites not recruited as socii could have been also ponctually recruited, although it was a minor feature. Well-equiped in an italic-greek fashion, they were sturdy, disciplined and fierce opponents, hardened by centuries of warfare against the celts. They seen themselves as the natural protectors of italy, like the macedonians, which naturally conduct them to be resolute adversaries of the roman hegemony.
SAMNITE INFANTRY (low-def skin): A lot of samnites warriors which were not part of the socii system were appreciated as mercenaries. The romans considered them as really impressive warriors, with an unrivalled reputation of martial ferocity in all the whole peninsula, some says after their possible spartan origin. They invented the manipular fightning which led to crush the romans several times until beeing subjugated after no less than three gruelling wars. The typical samnite warrior was dressed with a short tunic, having an only greave (to the shield side), a cardiophylax, lighter then the full bronze armor, spears, heavy javelins, and a kopis-like sword. Their shield was typically short, concave and asymetric from the top to the bottom. Their attic helmets were usually widely decorated with impressive crests and feathers. Although they probably served far more under roman adversaries, these mercenaries could be ponctual levies of great value, although of a dubious loyalty...
ITALIC SKIMISHERS : A common infantry used for scouting, ambushing and harrassing at the first line. They were notably young or poor, using affordable material, as the common negau (the italic pylos helmet) helmet, a short scutum in the oscan style, several javelins and a kopis sword. As mercenaries they were skilled and hardened enough to fight also hand-to-hand with success, although clearly lacking of protection.
PEDITES ITALIOTAE : They were a late italic infantry, used by the italiote league before the pyrrhic wars. The greeks settlers of magna grecia used several styles of greek-style infantry, and the hoplites were somewhat old-fashioned. Lighter troops were given a thureos, which was lighter and less cumbersome, while beeing a better protection in relatively loose formation. Italiotae infantrymen acted as a thureophoroi infantry, usable for scouting and flanking, and beeing usable auxiliary spearmen for the main roman army. Lately, they were probably equipped in a more roman fashion, with chainmail and thracian helmet.
ITALIC CAVALRY MERCENARY (low-def skin): Italic cavalry was generally considered as superior to the roman equites in equipment and skills. The campanians were especially praised, and usually served as extraordinarii. However the majority of italic horsemen were versatile, using javelins, and spear.
MISTOPHOROI TARENTINOI : The famous "tarentines" were of course a cavalry unit from taras (tarentum), which greatly influenced the way of fightning in the whole peninsula. This kind of versatile cavalry became a style of warfare more than an ethnic origin, a generic word for a cavalry type which was used throughout the mediterranean, including the diadochoi. The original tarentines were most knew by the romans as adversaries during the pyrrhic war. After pyrrhus dead and the subjugation of the italiotae league, tarentine cavalrymen began a new carreer as scouts for the roman legions, in mercenary service and as socii.
MAMERTINES (low def skin) : The Famous Mamertines were named after the god they worshipped, Mars. An Oscan people, that living in the Bruttium, had a bellicose behaviour and usually used as mercenaries by rivalling cities of Magna Grecia.. They settled in Mammertum in the Bruttium, facing the strait of Sicily. During the long lasting war betwen Syracuse and the Carthaginians, then allies of Rome, the tyran Agathocles offered them to settle in eastern Sicilia, and fight against the Punic cities for high wages and promises of their own looting. These Oscans fought with bravery, pushing back the Carthaginians to the western corner. But after Agathocles death and Syracusan internal turmoil, the mamertines were eventually never paid, and then entered in an open rebellion. They seized the greek colony of Messana, a Syracusan client city, which became a base for fierce plundering raids and piracy in the whole thyrranean sea. Hiero II, the new tyran, decided to recruit new troops to crush the mamertines. At the same time these events took place, the Romans victorious on Pyrrhos, settled garrisons in the Bruttium, taking under control the local capital Rhegion, the only ally to the Mamertines. As soon as Hiero II takes back with success all the mamertines territories, they were found finally encircled in Messana. They searched a new alliance with the carthaginians and the Romans, but both resigned. As soon as the punic trade had to suffer depredations of the mamertines in the Thyrrenean sea, talks between Hiero II and Hanno began (the last has just landed in Sicilia with fresh african troops and mercenaries to solve the question). They agreed to besiege in common the Mamertine city and to seize and share former Mamertine territories. As ultimate rescue, the Mamertines once more called the now, near Romans. After some rugged discussions, the Senate send Appius Caudex to negociate a treaty, which was refused by Hiero II. The Romans eventually accepted to send an army to protect the city. After all, (official reason) mamertine were fellow italians and (officious reason) the Senate was afraid by the growing power of the Carthaginians, in Spain and in Sicilia. It was the perfect casus belli, as both carthaginians and Syracusans couldn't tolerate this, and the start of the first punic war...
MARIUS REFORMED LEGION
EARLY REPUBLICAN LEGIONARY (#1 marian transitional and #2 later evolution): Marius Reform changed the way that the republican legion was recruted. It was more widely opened, and became but also now on a true professional basis. Recruits were there for 25 years of services, and paid on the same level. The triplex acies was not probably seen as a tool with sufficient flexibility, in the light of recent battles, and the whole legion was now uniformised, the same pay priving roughly the same equipments, with no particular rules after. The Principe was the typical professional infantry which inspired the new legionary equipments. In fact, a long transition occured, which saw the former triarii probably becomes officers, and hastati and principes been integrated in the same unit, with a new organisation shadowing the ancient triplex acies : Atlhough beein given a very near equipment, the quincux acies formation (or checkerboard) saw the older and more experienced veterans placed in the third line cohors, the youngest to the first, reproducting the old shematic system... These legionaries seen a lot of involements but their equipmement was still the same of the principes, they were still equipped with the impressive and heavy gallic montefortino crested helmet, but the shorter "gladius hispaniensis" introduced first by Scipio. Their hasta became heavyer enough, the biggest weigthing as much as 8 kgs. Probably too heavy for effective launching, it was probably retained as a close-defence spear, although not well-fitted for this. The pugio, derived from the spanish dagger, was now a standard.
EARLY REPUBLICAN PRIMA COHORS: Or "the first cohort". They were mostly veterans in each legion, and formed double-size cohors (800 instead of 480 men). They were probably keeped in reserve, in the third line in the quincux (the roman checkerboard legion formation), acting as the ancient triarii. Beeing generally older than current legions, they were also probably much well equipped, but their skills (after more than 15 years of service) and strong discipline and esprit de corps made them an unbeattable tactical reserve. The eagle was introduced around 104 bc with Gaius Marius reforms. It was the "personal" symbol attached to the republic (and symbolising the glory or Rome), the most prestigious after others created by Marius as the bear, boar, bull, and horse, became the personnal, prestigious attribute from the oldest and more experienced cohort in each legion, the first cohort. Having the aquilifer (the eagle carryer) of the legion was the supreme honor, and soldiers were ready to give their lives to recovering it from the enemy's hands. The first legion acted as ancient triarii earlier. They were keeped in reserve and fought on the first line if the former cohorts were forced to retreat. The whole marian legion was 10-cohort strong, each containing 6 centuries of 80 men (themselves divided between 8 men groups, as the modern-day platoon). The first cohort was an irregular unit of 5 doubled centuries (160 men strong), commanded by the most awarded veteran centurion, or primus pilus. Showing award silver plates on their chest was common, and acted as a secondary armor. The primus cohors was still, both by her skills, experience, and the honor to show the legion's eagles, the best unit to be engaged. Each century was followed by a signifer (flag bearers with the name of the legion and personal symbol of the general), and showing the Centurial Signum, the highly decorated spear, showing medallions and often topped with an open hand to signify the oath of loyalty taken by the soldiers, and later various citations as "victrix", "pia fidelis", "paterna", "certa constans" and other awards. Later in the imperial age, the imaginifer was showing the divine image of the emperor.
LATE REPUBLICAN LEGIONARY : This is the common legionaty of the civil wars. It was nearly unchanged until the dacian wars and the introduction of the famous metallic lorica segmentata intended to cope with the deadly falxes of the dacians. Until then, and after, the chainmail was still the main armour, but the scutum became wider, more square-shaped, reinforced, and the helmet was the most chabging part of all. The heavy and tall montefortino was left for the lighter and more simpler coolus model, which encompass in the wider-range "gallic", and later "imperial gallic" models which were derivative of the first, but with huge neckguards and bigger, more stronger cheekguards. The "short" was adopted probably form the celtiberian during the second punic war, but it was generally adopted soon before the civil wars. As things gone, this very professionnal infantry has practically no serious enemies left to fight, and then these were conducted to fight each others...
LATE REPUBLICAN PRIMA COHORS : The first cohort of the civil wars. (See above). Marius legionaries were modelled after the princeps because thier pay was such that they could afford it. Things were not changed later, but the equipment do. A longer lorica hamata (chainmail), a cheaper iron helmet, the new light coolus gallic model (later the "imperial" gallic helmet), derived from the "reverse jockey cap" simple and economical coolus or agen/port. The last had a characteristic frontal reinforcement, and all models would have bigger and bigger neck guard and cheek guards. Another characteristic feature were the apron and the balteus (armored belt). Legionaries still have their two pila, a bigger and wider enough shield, which tenders to be more rectangular and curved, the classic gladius hispaniensis (cavalrymen used the longer spatha), an the small pugio which was more an utilitary tool than a weapon. After the rise of the principate and the dacian wars, the lorica hamata was leaved in favor of a new, cheaper, but more protective armor, knows as the lorica segmentata (for shoulders and chest, and the lorica manica, in bronze rather of iron, covering the right arm. Iron was recovered by a thin layer of silver.
COHORS AUXILIA HASTATUS : When Gaius Marius took over his massive reforms, the old triplex acies disappeared, and former division by age was implemented into the cohors themselves. The Velites disappeared also, and were not replaced by any other units, although until the augustean principate, various local auxiliaries were recruited by the generals during their campaigns. Augustus reformed the army, and created a permanent unit attached to the legions, the pedites auxiliae or "foot supports", which were well-equipped and could be spearmen as javelinmen.\n\nThese auxiliae were not "roman" citizens, which all composed the legion, but peregrini or free non-citizens throughout the empire, volunteers, and paid by the empire as professional soldiers. This population encompass nearly 90% of the roman empire during the first century bc, and were given (with cavalry and archers) the three third of the whole roman army. The spearmen were chosen between strong and sturdy warriors, to from regular units of medium infantry. As such, the gauls were praised as auxiliae. They were organised into a flexible cohors system similar to the legionaries, beeing a permanent army, receving the roman citizenship at the end of their carreer. They were re-introduce the spear (disappeared with the triarii) in the legions, although their heavy (up to 2,10 meters long and 8 kgs) pilum was probably used as such. Spears used by these auxiliae were longer than the close-fight hasta. They were well-equipped, having a gladius as secondary and melee weapon, a puglio dagger, an oval shield, a coolus-type light helmet and a chainmail. Later, this "coolus" helmet was giving wider cheeks and a bigger sloping neck-guard.
COHORS AUXILIA VELITES (#1 and #2, early and late light auxilia) : When Gaius Marius took over his massive reforms, the old triplex acies disappeared, and former division by age was implemented into the cohors themselves. The Velites disappeared also, and were not replaced by any other units, although until the augustean principate, various local auxiliaries were recruited by the generals during their campaigns. Augustus reformed the army, and created a permanent unit attached to the legions, the pedites auxiliae or "foot supports", which were well-equipped and could be spearmen as javelinmen.\n\nThese auxiliae were not "roman" citizens, which all composed the legion, but peregrini or free non-citizens throughout the empire, volunteers, and paid by the empire as professional soldiers. This population encompass nearly 90% of the roman empire during the first century bc, and were given (with cavalry and archers) the three third of the whole roman army. The spearmen were chosen between strong and sturdy warriors, to from regular units of medium infantry. As such, the gauls were praised as auxiliae. They were organised into a flexible cohors system similar to the legionaries, beeing a permanent army, receving the roman citizenship at the end of their carreer. They were re-introduce the spear (disappeared with the triarii) in the legions, although their heavy (up to 2,10 meters long and 8 kgs) pilum was probably used as such. Spears used by these auxiliae were longer than the close-fight hasta. They were well-equipped, having a gladius as secondary and melee weapon, a puglio dagger, an oval shield, a coolus-type light helmet and a chainmail. Later, this "coolus" helmet was giving wider cheeks and a bigger sloping neck-guard. The "velites" were basically a "pila" infantry, acting as light skirmishers and scouts, and able to fight in melee with a short sword as the gladii. They are described using oval shields, having the same helmet than the legionaries, and wearing a simple tunic. This implies recruitments into warlike tribes which used this kind of warfare, as the illyrians, gauls, iberians, greeks (modelled on the peltastai) which formed the bulk of theses light troops.
ANTESIGNANI : Also called "Pedites Speculatores" (foot scouts), these late units were replacements for the former extraordinarii as an elite force of foot scouts. They were recruited amongst regular legionaries, but were clearly experienced and highly skilled. The Antesignani were a post-marian infantry, taking also the task of the ancient provisory "antepilani", regular units used as occasional scouts. This was primarily a scouting unit, but also use for special tasks. These were specially trained "out of the rank" legionaries, which acted somewhat as the hellenic thuerophoroi, preceding the whole army (and its signifers, hence their name) to avoid ambushed and find the army positions. These hardy men were carefully chosen, were given a light equipment including javelins, a gladius, a hasta, using an oval shield or even a parma rather than the heavier scutum, and a good leather armor. They wore a cloak in order to sleep in open air rather than in camp, anc are capable themselves of raids and ambushes warfare, including night operations. In an open battle, they can be used as a special reinforcement unit, acting against the flanks and rear of the enemy, but they were especially efficient while threatening the enemy's supply lines. They were also roman citizens, and more skilled and respected than the auxiliaries.
COHORS EVOCATA : Veterans re-enlisted : The Evocati (sing. evocata) were veterans reenlisted in the roman marian legion, former legionaries with missio (discharge) that never became officers. After 20 years of military service, these men were given a land, but they were not all capable of living as farmers... These lands were later more and more far from rome, on the borders, in order to make a "colonist" roman belt with experienced warriors against the neighbouring barbarians. Some which were not pleased with this brand new life could be reenlisted at the consul or general invitation, with far better appointments than ordinary soldiers, and could afford the best equipment, as greaves, superior quality helmet and chainmail... As the senate of Rome was not in charge of them, they naturally turned over their former general, and became the most loyal troops in the whole legion. They enjoyed a privileged status, beeing exempted for usual camp tasks duties, training, and having the favor and good hearing of the officers and their general, as the respect of the youngest legionaries. By their natural skills, they acted in each cohort as "informal officers", beeing often in charge of the contubernia (the subgroups of 8 men in each century, as modern days platoons). The usual step behind was to be promoted centurion...
COHORS SAGITARII : Late auxiliary archers were recruited at the end of the republic, as stated by Gaius Marius reforms. They were first local auxilia recruited in syria as mercenaries and later, during imperial age, receiving a professional taining, and added to the legions as cohors, as volunteers throughout the empire. They could have been syrians, sarmatians, scythians, persians, using a specially build composite bow for western climate, with a greater range than any eastern bow. They fought on foot, were protected by the classic sarmatian helmet which became the ancestor of the famous Spangenhelm, wore a lorica squamata and long sleeves. They could fight on close combat with a spatha (long sword), and could have been acting as improvised reinforcements when they were short of missiles. Highly trained, loyal, costly, but really efficient unit in the Roman army which was not previously confident about this kind of soldiers, they took a growing part during the imperial campaigns. Thanks to their composite longbow, they were not fast but they had a range which suprassed all previous archers units and gave them new tactical possibilities alongside war machines, giving a support fire from far beyond their lines. Their good protection and accurate fire gave them an afvantage even against the quick-firing and moving eastern nomads, Sarmatians and Parthians.
PRAETORIANIS COHORS (Iimperial roman cohort) : This last evolution of the "evocati" (veterans) were, at the beginning, equivalents of the mounted praetorians, picked-up bodyguards of civil war generals. They appeared during the civil wars as a general foot bodyguard, first as an informal unit, but they were ultimately recruited in regular cohors by Augustus, organised in 9 cohors, never grouped into a legion, recruited exclusively in Rome. Later, the Urban Cohors were anothr praetorian guard stationed in Rome only, or the Pomerium. They recieved the best equipment, normally allocated to the officers, and were easy to distinguish from regular legionaries, although the early praetorians were equipped as regular legionnaires, with a chainmail, but in a more impressive way, including greaves and crested decorated helmet.
COHORS VIGILES : A late, Augustean creation, they were a paramilitary unit, designed to watch and survey at night, doing police duties and beeing a fire brigade at the same time. They were trained not hardly as legionnaires, but able to take over defence missions if needs. They were trained and equipped for that, given a light scutum and a spear, axes normally used for fire interventions, and pergaps a gladius from the armory. They were perfectly suited as garrison units, but not in campaign, where they have been outclassed by any professional infantry. The recutement was widely opened, to roman citizens, Peregrini or slaves. After many years of service they could have been granted the full citizenship. Civil guards were organised in cohors by Augustus in 6 ad, which raised to 4% the tax on the sale of slaves to equip them. These were more successful then the former old Triumviri Nocturni, a fire brigade made of priivately owned slaves. The vigile were recruted on the same basis, and were still in charge of night watch, fire patrol, and police duties. They were trained in a military camp and could have been use as support or guard troops id needed, although they were not given any weapon (but axes for sapping), fearing a revolt. When used as guardsmen, they could have receive a metal helmet (the usual was a leather cap), a scutum, and a spear. But they were not intended to fight outside the city. Only confined to Rome at the beginning, they were recruted during the early principate, in several italian major cities, and then throughout the empire. The use of a spear instead of a dagger or sword was based on the sacred forbidden use of any weapon in the poemerium.\n\nThis para-military unit was well-trained and equipped as a firebrigade, having Medici (doctors) and their champlains (victimarii), water supplyers (aquarius) and siphonarius (manning the sipho pump), even a ballista to knock down burned houses and create firebreaks. In order to recruit more volunteers, the lex Visellia passed in 24AD stated that after 6 years of service, these vigile would be granted freedom and full citizenship. These cohors were trained by former roman officers as evocati, and later, peregrine and even citizens were allowed to be recruited as well.
EQUITES ALARES (#1 four original low-res skins variant - former vanilla roman families and #2 : High-res normal skin) : The Roman legionary cavalry was in effect, a mounted unit of legionaries and has nothing to do with the Roman equestrian class (the pre-marian equites). These horsemen were generally recruited outside Rome and even outside italy, between local populations, but trained and equipped as auxiliae. Cavalry was not really trusted by the roman generals, which used htem for secondary duties as scouting, screening, chasing light forces and routed units, as messengers, patrol units... These were grouped into basic units or "Turmae" of 32 horsemen, themselves be part of the "alae", or "wing" of 16 turmae. The legion was often followed by a massive ala militaria (32 alae) or some alae. But the true legionary cavalry was the "equites legionis", a 120-strong basic unit directly attached to the legion, and formed by regular roman citizens. The proportion of Eque Alaris auxiliae was quite bigger. These cavalrymen were equipped just as auxiliae, with an oval shield or hectogonal one, chainmail, Roman helmet (at that time, derived to the gallic imperial model, with large scheeks and neckguard), a spear (short and light to be used with one hand) and a long sword or "spatha", the typical cavalry sword. The Roman cavalry was fot long a subsidiary unit, until the beginning of great invasions of the east, and to deal against the parthians, sarmatians, and other eastern nomads during the last centuries ot the empire. A Powerful heavy cavalry was developed.
EQUITES AUXILIA ALARES : The Equites Auxilia Alares were driven from the best horsemen, largely in the east, but also from spain, gaul, thrace, and "uniformized" under roman service, training and equipment. This was a highly valuable cavalry of lancers and swordsmen, which complement the standard legionary cavalry and probably precedes this in time, after marius reforms. With the new system created by Marius, the equites were not sufficient enough to constitute a true operationnal cavalry. During two centuries, the romans relied upon socii cavalry, but this, was still not enough, even after these socii entered the roman ull citizenship. A few years before the roman civil war, roman generals used to recruit local horsemen to act as screening and scout forces. Famous examples are Julius Caesar and his Ubian cavalry. Gallic cavalrymen were praised also, disciplined, well-equipped, and efficient. Later this became almost a rule. This auxiliary cavalry bacme codified after Augustus reforms, and equipment was more homogeneous. From the locals (spanish, gallic, germanic, thracians...) horsemen which composed these units, most were given the same furnitures, a chainmail, light helmet, spear, and/or javelins, cloak, and the oval shield used by almost all auxiliaries. The cavalrymen were either light and equipped with javelins and a sword, or heavyer and using a stabbing spear, but the majority was light to the standard of the roman legionary cavalry, and acted mostly as scout forces and wing reinforcements.
EQUITES AUXILIA SPECULATORES : The auxilia cavalry was a non-citizen cavalry recruit amongst local horsemen by generals during the civil wars, and became a more homogeneous unit with the principate. The "speculatores" were scouts, recruited locally (and with perfect horsemanship and perfect knowledge of their own country), equipped with an oval shield, javelins, short spear, and sword, acting as light auxilia and scouts. They were "regular" heavily romanized cavalry to contrast with the "tumultarii" (irregulars), equipped in a local fashion, and resemble more like mercenaries than legion's units. Local units were spanish ("equites iberici"), gallic ("equites gallorum"), thracian ("equites thracorum"),
EQUITES PRAETORIANIS (Late general bodyguard cavalry #2 model+skin) : This elite late cavalry was born with the beginning of the roman civil war. It was a bodyguard unit, attached to the general only (guards of the praetoria or general's tent in camp), not as the escort equite singulare which they replaced. This a specially trained elite cavalry, driven not from the old equestrian class, but promoted mounted legionaries or auxiliaries. They were given a far better equipment than the ordinary soldiers, having crested helmets, bronze armors and cloaks to distinguish themselves, and fight with a spear and a spatha. Having a wide shield and one-hand spear, they were designed for one charge, then fight in melee, beeing dismounted if needed. These chosen men are highly skilled, inflexible, loyal to the death, with high morale and endurance. Later during the early empire, this special unit increased in size and influence, to the point of choosing themselves the emperors...
LOCAL AOR LATE ROMAN UNITS
Under this term were described all the roman auxiliary local forces, since Marius reforms ended the old italic socii system. Now, in 90 bc, the Romans were near de facto masters of all the mediterranean coast. Only the Ptolemies and several puppet kingdoms (Amici), or clients, were still autonomous. The use of local forces as auxiliae was a major part of any legion in campaign, far from italy. These local troops were in fact, fully integrated mercenaries, from all origins, and generally the best of their kind. The finest cavalrymen were used as scouting and screening force, as they knew their lands and peoples, and were horse masters. The Thracians, were amonsgt the most impressive, but also the agile numidians in africa, mounted caetrati in spain, gallic cavalry, or germanic cavalry as the famous Ubians recruited by Caius Julius Caeasar, which was the first to rely on these barbarian foreigners. Gallic auxiliary were recruited first as mercenaries, but in the augustus first principate, with granted privileges, some locals choosed to enlist in mass, as did the Batavians. Versatile, well-equipped, disciplined, though, they formed nearly four per cent of the whole roman forces at this time and were highly priced. and Other famous auxiliae were the Levantine archers which were not a part first of the regular cohors sagittariorum, a late unit, but also classic mercenaries as the balearic or rhodian slingers, cretans and syrian archers... Local troops were recruited as mercenaries in large number, fighting alongside the roman legion -or beeing just a security flanking force, the legion still doing the job, as seen during Scipio's iberian campaign. They could still beeing irregulars (mixed local equipments), with titles like "socii" or "foederati" (allies by treaty). The last became in time the most numerous part of the roman army, the starting point of the relative "barbarization" of the late roman army.
SYRORUM SAGITARIORUM (mercenary syrian archer skin): These were the early name and early style which was quickly led to the formation of regular "cohors sagitarii", equipped in a similar style during and after the augustean principate. Later the Hamian archers were reputed to be the current "syrians", since the city of Hama fell into Roman hand's in 63 AD. The Syrorum Saggitariorum were recruted amost exclusively within this city and surround lands of Syria, but when more regular units were created, the "hamian" were in fact no more born there, even Syrians, but they could have been Scythia, Sarmatians, or in general eastern as well.
PEDITES GALLORUM : Auxiliary Gallic infantry. They appeared almost exclusively during Caesar campaign in gaul, which politics of dividing to conquer was generally successful. Most of them were recruited amongst "amici" including the poweful aedui confederacy, which ancient ties with Rome were strong. Other could have been from the cisalpine gauls and boians, of from the "provincia", the southern part of Gaul including the loyal old city of Massilia. As the recruitment needs of the romans were relatively high, those auxiliaries were almost obligated to possess a chainmail and good helmet, to stand the line, that purged these units from untrustfully poor levies. These were generally disciplined and highly skilled, of lesser noble origin or experienced mercenaries. As most of the roman auxilia, they were used mostly for wing protection of the legion, and were giving a spear and a celtic longsword.
EQUITES GALLORUM (CENOMANNI EPOS) : La cavalerie auxiliaire Gauloise fut largement employée par César, mais bien avant cela les Romains firent appel à des Cénomans et Sarsinates pour attaquer le territoire des Boiens et les divertir de l'attquae principale qui se termina à la bataille de Télamon en 225 av.jc. Les Cenomans étaient des Gaulois établis entre seine et loire, dans l'actuelle Sarthe (Le Mans tire son nom de ce peuple), ainsi que le Maine. A une date indéterminée, selon certains auteurs, ils émigrèrent vers le sud, certains s'établissant autour de Massilia avec les Volcae, d'autres traversant les Alpes et venant s'établir en Gaule Cisalpine. Les deux peuples existaient en parrallèle en 220 av.jc. Mandatés par Bellovesus, menés par Heliotivios, ils subjuguèrent les populations locales et fondèrent Brixio (Brescia).
EQUITES GALLORUM (CENOMANNI EPOS) : Auxiliary Gallic cavalry. Also used widely by Casear -and described in "de bello gallico", these were fine horsemen, of noble or lesser noble origin, with a good equipment including chainmail, celic longsword, javelins, and gaesos spear. With their perfect knowledge of their country they acted as scouts, and wing reinforcements in campaign. The Cenomanni were apparently two peoples, with a probable connection. The original ones were gallic established in the modern region of Sarthe (The town of Le Mans took its name from them), and Maine, and their probably travelled the country south, some of them settled alongside the Volcae near Massilia, others crossed the Alps and settled in Italy, becoming one of the Celtic peoples of Gallia Cisalpina. This allied cavalry wast typical of the light-medium gallic cavalry in 300-200 bc : They were not nobles but wealthy warriors, were unarmoured except a montefortino or coolus style helmet, were given a relatively small roundshield and several gaesos for throwing, and fought in melee with a sword or axe. They were particulary fast and agile, well suited for scouting devices, but skilled and hardened enough to fight every encountered cavalry and were sent by the romans to invade the Boian territory alongside a force of 40 000 Umbrians, Sarsinates and Venetians. During Cesar's campaign, the Gallic Cenomanni joined Vercingetorix coalition and fought Caesar as well.
EQUITES UBII : The "Ubians" were also a Cesarean auxiliary cavalry. Although the germans were not reputed horsemen and their horses -according to Caesar- were "small and of so bad condition that they would have been reformed in any italic unit", the Ubians were frontier horsemen of great skills and reknown. Lightly equipped, fierce and fast, they acted mostly as scouts. They wore leather helmets, or furs, and having leather padded armors. Wikipedia : "They [the Ubians] were transported in 39 BC by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa to the left bank [of the Rhine]. This was apparently at their own request, as they feared the incursions of the Suebi. Agrippa founded the city of Cologne as their capital, whose Latin name Colonia Agrippensis is the origin of the current form. The Ubii remained loyal allies of Rome, and were instrumental in crushing the Batavian rebellion in 70. They seem to have been so thoroughly Romanized that they adopted the name Agrippenses in honour of their “founder”, and their later history is submerged in that of eastern Gaul as a whole." The Ubians led to the formation in the augustean period of semi-regular units of germanic scouts, the "Equites Germanorum".
EQUITES THRACORUM : A late renowned auxiliary cavalry from thrace. The Thracians were famous for their light or medium fast cavalry usually enlisted as mercenaries, since 500 bc. In Roman service they were probably equipped with chainmails, heavy machaira swords, or spatha. They were used as scouts, but they could have fought in melee as well, beeing skilled and well equipped.
