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SELEUKOI

 

Pantodapoi : Local auxiliary levies. The Seleucids were probably the more aware of the weakness fo their macedonian forces and used large amounts of local auxiliaries, from all nations of the persian world. Alongside garrison cities and forts, they filled the army numbers by their sheer mass. "Pandotapoi" means "auxiliary", they were the mainstay of the seleucid amry, especially lately when both the roman empire and the parthians were at the gates. These average levies were rarely peltasts (most of them were mercenaries of various origins), but more often spearmen, with no armor, poor shield, weak loyalty and morale, and just a sufficient training to do basic duties. They were valuable as a local defence militia, near their families, but of little value in battle, especially against professional mercenaries and regular soldiers.

HOPLITAI HAPLOI : Given a good training, these poor greek citizens were recruited as traditionnal hoplites for the defence of the city. They were more a militia than a true fightning force, lacking training and equipments. A wood, bronze-backed aspis, a second-rate helmet, an affordable xphos or nothing, their xyston and a tunic made them valuable and courageous troops.

Deuteroi Phalangitai (Levy phalanx) Beeing the backbone of the seleucid phalanx, such unit was first of greek-macedonian descent, then mostly of many nationalities judged "able" to fight there. Their equipment was reglementary, but it was probably light and affordable : A mass product phrygian, or bottian-pylos style helmet, a quilted armor, the most affordable an light, but allowing a limited protection to the gain of a greater mobility of the phalanx (an essential feat as the frontal running shock of the ancient hoplites turned back in favor within the diadochis tactics rather than complex combined arms tactics from Alexander or his father. They were probably not wealthy enough to afford greaves, but most of all would have been used a xiphos as close-defence weapon. It was simple, light, short, and affordable.

Iphikrates hoplitai : Alongside levy and auxiliary phalanx, many of the phalanx was provided by well-trained "iphikratid hoplites". Since the time of the pelopponesian war, they became a kind of peltast trained to be rearmed with a lenghtened dory (or short sarissa). The first probably used the round pelta, but later, they kepts their thureos. They are few depictions of them, but the most current opinion was thet they were a transitional unit, and were mors effective as "thureophoroi", using the one-hand dory, than phalanxes using a sarissa. In fact, the so-called Iphikrates hoplites were mercenary peltasts, able to fight as skirmishers, which could quickly be rearmed in the pich of battle with a sarissa to form a spear wall for its own defence. This was a succesful tactic against cavalry and also succesful against classic infantry, as shown Achaian "thureophoroi" against the Spartans.

Symmachoi phalangitai (Allied phalanx) : These Allied Phalanx came from friend states, like macedon. They were not mercenaries, but sent troops to reinforce the alliance between the great successors kingdoms and friend states of the seleucids. These troops were supposedly of high quality, with good armors and training. Macedonian phalanx was always appreciated for its traditional and hard way of training, always a model for eveny seleucid infantryman.

Pezhetairoi : These famous troop were given various armaments and equipments, although ancient authors agreed to speak about them to be nude or half-nude. It was not only to impress their enemies but also a war tactic, to be more agile in the battlefield, exaclty like stated Polybius when speaking about the Gaesates from the Rhône valley fightning as mercenaries at Telamon. The true line Gaesate were naked or half-naked warriores armed by gaesos as main weapons. It was a quite current infantry, far less equipped or fierce than those usually showed. These were young and fast-moving, as a medium or even heavy skirmisher infantry. They were posted to the rear, and then to the forefront during the "tumultus gallicus" which precedes the assault. This model is based on a famous AngusMcBride reconstruction.

Argyraspidai (Veteran Phalanx) : These well-known veterans were called as such at the end of the alexandrian conquest. The oldest pezhetairoi, battle-hardened, earned this title, first as honorary title, and some of them has been fighting under Philip II rule and were now, during the indian campaign, 50 or even 60 years old... During the diadochi era, the seleucids maintained this honorary title as a new unit in its own right, not only picked-up veterans within the phalanx. It was the true elite phalanx if the seleucids, highly skilled and well-equipped men. The bronze aspis was probably also replaced by iron, due to the dry climate of the east, or polished to resemble silver. The wore also more decorative helmets, like these plumed boeotians, hight quality linothorax or very light cuirasses, and a chainmail covered their arms and body under the cuirass itself. They were so highly protected and slow-moving, but their defence and slow-paced attack was unstoppable.

Chrysaspidai (Elite Royal Hypaspists): The "golden shields" were of course more an honorific title than the nature of their shield, although it could have been intentionally polished enough to look like such. They were, amongst many units within the pezhetairoi, a rank higher than the "argyraspidai" (a possible reference also to an universal symbol of valor, the olympic games). For other authors they were only high rank hypaspists, repeating the same position and use at the weakest part of the battle line, and were equipped as hoplites with a 75 cm shield and slightly lighter armor to be more agile. Whatever they could have been, they were veterans, chosen ("epilektoi") within the best of the bests. They could have been used also as somatophylakes (royal bodyguards).

Makedonikoi Peltastai : Also called Pheraspidai, these were a variant of the ancient hypaspistai. Although they were still an elite royal unit, composed with trustful, picked-up soldiers, not necessary veterans, because this unit required first endurance. They were very heavy "peltasts", fightning at the forefront to break the enemy formation just before the phalanx attack, and to deal with evolutions of the thureo bearer infantry : Thuerophoroi and thorakitai. In fact this duty was not necessary well-decribed, but they were practical successors of the old ekdromoi hoplitai. They probably have a light cuirass (or even still retained a tunic), a bronze-backed large aspis, a large machaira and two heavy javelins. During the diadochi battles, they were probably used to disrupt the enemy phalanx before the schock.

Thureophoroi (medium infantry): This famous kind of infantry was a versatile one, using javelins, sword, and a spear, but it is dubious that they could have caried all at the same time. It was a practical evolution of the Peltastai and the Iphikratean hoplite. They were no longer a phalanx unit, retaining to the more agile way of fightning of the Peltastai. One tactic was decribed by Plutarch, which wrote about the Achaean league thureophoroi. They acted as peltasts, launching their javelins, and then retired and quickly seized their spears, which layed on the ground behind, probably longer than the usual xystons. What we are not sure is about the way that they handled them. If using the thureos, these trrops probably fought with this spear over head, and the thureophoroi are usually described as fast-moving and agile troops, which is connected with a single-handed spear. Lately they would have been even three kind of such thureophoroi : The lightest ones, a kind of levy, just having thureos, helmet and tunic, fighting with light spear, sword, and javelins, and gave the "machairaphoroi", the heavy thureophoroi equipped with armors, and the chainmail thureophoroi, better known as the thorakitai.

Machairaphoroi (Late Reformed successor infantry) : These light infantrymen were knwon by depictions, engravings and paintings, mostly those of Sidon funerary Stele. These were a levy thureophoroi, equipped with spears and swords, or only swords, the machaira, earning their title of "machairaphoroi". This form of late "romanized" infantry, was designed to act in a more agile way than the classic thureophoroi and thorakitai, like Roman infantry. The other part of the Ascepiodotos reforms was their organization in medium-sized units, roughly equivalent to the legions. They became far more numerous after the battle of Pydna, getting lessons from the roman war tactics, which definitely influenced the successors armies. Contrary to common opinion however, they never completely replaced the old phalanx infantry, which were still the core of these reformed armies.

Thorakitai Argyraspidai (Elite romanized infantry): A late, final form of romanized infantry, they were really equipped like roman legionaries, and heavily trained, but never been numerous enough to form full-scale legions. They were still and elite unit within the old battleline system. A thureos, two heavy javelins, a reinforced chainmail, a machaira or a xiphos, resembling more the gladius fighting style, a decorated helmet, and boots, were their usual liver. They were an elite and as such, never been numerous enough to equal the roman legions, and stll retained a "combined arms tactics" specific duty, probably as a flanking and assault elite unit. Another thorakitai argyraspidai was decribed as entirely covered, including face, legs, and using a mace or an axe to disrupt the enemy formation.

Thorakitai Pelekophoroi (Elite assault infantry): These unit were an effective variant of the argyraspidai. They were described as entirely covered with chainmail, including arms and legs, and using axes (Peleke) or maces in the Oriental style, retaining a thureos and heavy javelins to launch before the schock. These "foot cataphtacts" were an elite assault infantry used to disrupt the enemy formation. Their weapons were designed to crush the shield ad allow nother infantrymen to exploit the created gaps. It was particulary useful against close-order formations and phalanxes. It is possible also that this infantry was developed after the example given by some dismounted parthian nobles which fought as an elite assault infantry during sieges.

Agrianai : Another form of assault infantry, but far more common and ancient, were these former mercenaries, which became a unit of their own right. Originally they were a thracian peltast unit, but quicly recoignised as an elite unit and well-suited for siege assaults. They were usually equipped with axes and javelins, not well-protected however, although some has been probably equipped with bronze armors which were more cheaper than the linothorax and chainmail.

Hippakontistai (skirmishing light cavalry): These mounted skirmishers were used by the Seleucids in great numbers in the vast areas of the Seleucid empire. Armed with a light wood or wicker shield, an several javelins, they relied on speed first and were given harassing and scouting missions. These units were well suited for patrolling on long-distances, and were numerous although the greek-born cavalrymen were largely replaced by local auxiliaries, which were quite better skilled for this task. Ancient medians and other submitted tribes of the middle-east were reputed as such and well used, but lately, horse-archer were given the priority in order to cope with the Parthian threat.

Hippotoxotai (Horse archers) : They were probably the only horse-archer units developed by any greek ruler, mostly lately to cope with Pathian horse-archers on the borders of the Empire. Greek-born hippakontistai were probably converted as horse-archers, heavily trained and given composite bows, but they never attained the level required to cope with born horse-archers like the nomadic parthians. The best answer was to recruit large amounts of local, tribal horse-archers, naturally better skilled for this task, including scythian mercenaries, and heavily protected cavalrymen, designed to cope with the parthian nobles.

Prodromoi (scout medium cavalry) : The prodromoi were the classical scouting cavalry in diadochi armies. They were originally of Thracian origin, and mercenaries, but Macedonian prodromoi, a variant of light equipped cavalry, existed as such. Late seleucid Prodromoi were mostly horse-born skirmishers, mounted peltasts. They were agile and fast-moving, able to fight dismounted as well, well equipped with their large thureos.

Diadochi prodromoi (late successors medium cavalry) : These heavy prodromoi were still of thracian and mixed descent, but more heavily equipped, using a two-handed xyston and having no shield. They were a shock cavalry, used to reinforce the classic Xystophoroi which were the backbone of the cavalry, completed by the Hetairoi.

Aspidophoroi (aspis bearer cavalrymen) : This was a skirmisher variant of the aspis equipped cavalrymen, a late unit used for melee combat. This was also a local version of the Tarentines, greek-born cavalrymen equipped with javelins, sword and even a xyston. They were still agils to perform scouting missions, but their main duty was to harrass the infantry unit, with real capabilities for close-combat.

Xystophoroi (heavy cavalry) : These cavalrymen were added to the hetairoi, which were nobles, but quickly became less numerous enough to form full-scaled cabalry units. So they were shouldered quickly by heavy cavalrymen of various recruitments, but similar tactics and equipments. As the hetairoi leads the charge, they required bronze armors, but the xystohoroi exploit it with teir large numbers, and don't needs such equipments. A simple tunic was their lot at the beginning, but most of them were probably given a light leather or linen armor. The cavalry xyston was far longer than its infantry version. It was very long and two-handed. The Xystophori charged with and around the less numerous but elite hetairoi and allowed them to push further, protecting their flanks during the penetration. Their relative lack of protection rendered the aspidophoroi and lonchophoroi more efficient in that way.

Hetairoi (heavy noble cavalry) : Companions cavalrymen were the macedonian nobles, beeing the heart and soulf the macedonian cavalry. But after years of hard campaigns and nattles bewteen the successors, these units were depleted, and they soon became less numerous enough to give a sufficient wirght to the heavy cavalry, so that they were soon reinforced by many lighter units of various recruitments.

Basilikè Kataphraktoi (general2) : These were an evolution of classic hetairoi, beeing equipped to encounter the mighty Parthian noblemen, the all-cladded cavalrymen which would have impress the seleucids, their first enemies, long before the Roman disaster at Carrhae. Royal cataphract bodyguards were given entirely covered horses, a long kontos, and a machaira for closefight. They had probably a greek style liothoroax entirely covered with scale or an oriental style scaled armor, and their arms were protected by chaibmail or a segmentary armor. A late hellenistic heavy cavalry unit, they were in fact, highly inspired by seleucid and ptolemaic cavalry units (from asia minor), themselves inspired by the parthian knights. The horses were entirely covered with interlapped scales on leather panels, The horseman was also heavily protected, using all kind of chest, shoulders, forelegs and forearms added protections. They were slower than usual cavalry units, and their tactics had to be re-thinked along eastern standards. Their main task was to disrupt enemy formations, to allow archer units to kill their targets more easily, or to charge at short distance on a triangular vanguard of the main heavy cavalry. In any case, these hellenic noblemen were followed by servants and valets.

Kataphraktoi (late bow and spear heavy cavalry) : To deal with the parthians, the Seleucids used many cavalry types, from the light horse archers, to the heavy cataphract lancers, and eventually, armoured horse-archers. Most of them were local auxiliaries from the nobility, well trained and used in perfect coordination with lancers. However, the seleucids never raised enough of these cavalrymen to deal against the parthians, and were frequently overrun. These units were late ones, and some of them were integrated in the newly created bactrian kingdom.

Drepanophora hamata (armoured chariots): Seleucid chariots were probably the very last in use in battle. Although Pontus used them agains the Romans, they were completely obsolete. Alaxender the great demonstrated they they were not a threat against a well-trained professional infantry His phalanx just open the ranks to them before crushing them with a combination of missiles and sarissas. Seleucid chariots were used against auxiliary infantry, which were supposed to be of poor morale and weak training. This was successful against many rebellions, including Zealots in Palestine. Slecucid chariots were "kataphraktoi", entirely armoured, the horses like the pilot. Large scythes, spears, speed (with four horses) forced a powerful alchemy of brute force and terrifying noise. These were devastating when well-used in open ground, creating havoc among the ranks of any light troops, and quickly routed them.

Elephantoi : Elephants from India were bought by Seleucos, and his successors, both to have a benefit from a peace treaty with the Mauryan kings and to used these in battle, or to sell them to most of the Diadochi. Even the far away kingdom of Epirus bought some under Pyrrhus rule to used them in Italy... Indian elephants were powerful, well trained and tall beasts. They terrified macedonian infantrymen in India and almots routed Alexander army at the Hydapse. In Seleucid service, they were ranked between "usual" elephants, generally unarmoured and manned by indian cornacs, with a tower and some local auxiliary archers or javelineer mounted on them, and cataphract elephants (see next).

Kataphraktoi elephantoi : Armoured elephants were usually chosen males for their size and strenght, completely covered with lamellar and scale armor protections, and with a well-protected tower, large enough to accomodate up to five skirmishers. Some were used with sarissas to deal with enemy elephants also. But the beasts can also run amok for various reasons, and after Ascepiodotos reforms, they were usually protected themselves by light spearmen which kepts enemies at a distance. So like world war one tanks, they acted as a moving support for the infantry on the battlefield, but no more as an offensive vanguard ram-like unit, especially against well-trained troops like the Romans.

Pandotapoi peltastai : These light infanrymen were local skirmishers, recruited amongst the local tribes. Middle-east mountaineers were particularly useful as such, as they mastered this kind of warfare. The seleucid satraps were given necessary resources to recruit them as auxiliaries, both to have addistional troops and to divert these men to conduct local revolts while paying and using them as garrison troops, and better ones for campaign.

Syriakoi sphendonetai : The syrians were also known for their valuable slingers, capable to fire lead bullets with great range and accuracy. They were not simple cattle-keepers but professional auxilaries, and well equipped. They were also skilled enough to fight against any infantry.

Syriakoi Toxotai : The famous Syrian archers were renown for their skills and great composite bow. They were proud of their military tradition which dates back form the Assyrians. More than long-range archers, they were also skilled infantrymen, able to use spears and swords as well with bravery and efficience. The Romans lately recruited many other nationalities under the name "syrian".

Judaioi Thureophoroi : This judaean infantry was levied when Jerusalem and Israel was under Seleudid authority. These were well-equipped and professional infantry, able to skirmish, fight with their xyston, and with their sword as well.

Katoikai Thraikoi : This mercenary thracians were current in early seleucid army, most of them became veterans, and were settled in the numerous alexandrian garrison cities along his empire, eventually turning as citizens, although fighting with the same tactics and equipments of their ancestors. Second or third generation of these thracian auxilaries spoke greek and usually have a mixed persian blood.

Galatoi Katoikoi : When recruiting entire galatian mercenary armies, the seleucids average infantrymen like Excinges, swordsmen with some value as a shock infantry. With light gaisates, they formed the bulk of mercenary Galatian forces. Like the Egyptian, they had some garrisoned or settled anywhere in the empire. It is not uncertain that some of these gallic origin warriors used to live in far way forts near the Indian border at the end of the empire... Most of them has took wives and their descendant were usually of mixed blood, others came with their families.

Kuarothoroi : The average galatian mercenary in Greek service: Some were recruited by Pontus, Pergamum, the Prolemaics, but of course their bigger client was the seleucid empire which enlisted entire gallic mercenary armies, especially after the final clash and defeat of the galatians in face of the Pergameses.

Galatoi Arjoi : Of the numerous Galatian mercenaries used by the seleucids were these nobles, heavy infantrymen which leads their mercenary client warriors in a celtic maneer, and experienced warriors that were settled locally. They were a practical elite mercenary unit. Late Galatian elite warriots were well-equipped, with chainmails, helmet, heavy javelins and a sword. They were clearly a minority however.

Galatoi drepanophora : Galatian war chariots were used to scare enely's horse and infantry by their noise and speed, but mostly to carry fine swordsmen and nobles and let them fight behind the enemy lines.

Epigonoi (Persaioi Phalangistai) - eventually not used in catw : Alexander the great formed great plans to raise a new army (and conquer india) with local iranians rather than with his fellow macedonians which motivation has faded in time and after his achievements. His generals were, most of all, reluctant to the idea of train persian conscripts in phalanx tactics, or to fight alongside such units, as they judging these "barbarians" unsuited for such warfare. After his death and Seleucos reign, his plans were forgotten. Since then, diadochis were always reluctant to raise locals and train them as phalangite units, always preferring to rely on greek-macedonians settlers only for such kind of warfare, left to the natives their own way of fightning. This plan couldn't be successful as the plans of conquests of the far east of Antiochos III need more men. He raised a gigantic army, with a macedonian core which was not strong enoough to fulfil its traditional duty. As Ptolemy later at the battle of Raphia which raised "machimoi" and trained them as emeregency provisional phalanxes, Seleucid Sovereign feared that such units would have gained too much strenght if rebelling. In fact, nothing could have proven such kind of infantry, but "deuteroi phalangitai" were even such multicultural units (with jews, mysians, phrygians, lycians, even syrians, which never seems to raise a problem when trained as phalangites. The persian phalanx could have been considered as a satrapal response to the katoikoi phalanx, and could have been called also "Komai phalangitai" as it could have been raised in native villages rather from granted lands and military colonies. However, this unit combines the classicla skills, equipements and discipline of the ancient sparabara with the copied tactics of the phalanx. This is a "what if" unit that could have been probably raised in emergency to counter the ptolemaics in syria, possibly also to commodely send there rebellious subjects.