L'Egypte est un exemple frappant de longue et brillante civilisation, toujours aussi fascinante aujourd'hui. Elle fut conquise en basse époque par les Assyriens qui laisseront des traces profondes, puis la Royauté fut rétablie avant de voir les Perses s'emparer de nouveau de l'Egypte en -525. Psammétique III, dernier pharaon de la 26e dynastie, fut vaincu par Cambyse II sur le delta du Nil à Pelusium. L'Egypte fut ensuite jointe à la Phénicie et à Chypre pour former la sixième Satrapie Achéménide. L'Egypte redevint quasi-autonome, sous la férule de trois nouvelles dynasties purement Egyptiennes à partir de 402 av.jc. avant qu'Artaxerxès III ne remette le pays sous la férule des Perses. S'il n'y avait plus de Roi officiellement, mais des gouverneurs, le peuple n'était pas maltraité, et l'autonomie, relative mais bien réelle.
En -332, l'Egypte suit l'effondrement et la conquête de l'empire Perse par les armées d'Alexandre. Il s'ensuit une époque de semi-autonomie ou le pays est dirigé par un "satrape", Ptolémée, général d'Alexandre, fils de Lagos, autre général d'Alexandre qui conquit le pays. A la mort d'Alexandre le grand, s'ensuit une époque troublée où Lagos puis son fils Ptolemée dirigent le pays de manière quasi autonome. En -305, Ptolémée est nommé pharaon et une nouvelle dynastie s'installe pour plus de deux siècles et demi. Loin d'imposer les coutumes et l'administration macédoniennes, Ptolémée I prend bien garde à se fondre comme ses prédécesseurs Perses dans la culture Egyptienne, dont il reprend les traditions pour mieux se faire accepter du peuple. Deux cultures cohabiteront ainsi, les grecs et macédoniens natifs ou immigrés, formant la classe supérieure privilégiée ou clérourques, et les egyptiens natifs, formant l'essentiel du peuple.
Ptolémée I sôter ("sauveur"), dirigea le pays de manière fort efficace, au point que ses armées reprirent contrôle de territoires voisins avant de se lancer dans la conquête de tout le moyen Orient à la faveur des guerres entre Diadoques. Tous ses successeurs furent engagés dans une double lutte, continentale, contre les Séleucides au nord, et navale, contre les Antigonides déployant une puissante flotte et continuant à se réclamer de la légitimité impériale Macédonienne. L'Egypte ne fut pas seulement un pays prospère économiquement et commercialement, grâce à ses exportations, puissant militairement, mais aussi un brillant centre culturel grâce à la volonté de ses pharaons hellenisés, et avec Alexandrie en point de mire, nouvelle capitale dont le phare et la grande bibliothèque étaient autant de fiertés pour les Hellènes en général.
La dynastie arriva à son terme durant le règne de Cléopâtre VII, unique pharaonne de la dynastie, entre -51 à -30. Son règne, partagé avec son frère Ptolémée XIII, fut marqué par les rapports complexes qu'entretenaient l'Egypte avec Rome, en passe de devenir les maîtres du monde. L'Egypte souffrira de disette, de crues insuffisantes du nil, et enfin en -49 d'une rivalité croissante entre les deux têtes de l'état, le jeune Ptolémée encore adolescent, et personnage faible, étant sous l'emprise de l'eunuque Pothin, tandis que Cléopâtre, conseillée par le général Achillas, fut contrainte de fuir pour éviter d'être assassinée. En -48, la guerre civile entre Pompée et César se solde par la fuite du premier en Egypte où il possède l'appui théorique du jeune Ptolémée, lequel sur conseil de son Eunuque et pour se concilier les bonnes grâces de césar, le fait assassiner. Mais ce dernier reèglera la question dynastique en permettant à Cléopâtre de revenir au pouvoir et d'y régner seule. Il s'ensuivra une longue période de semi-autonomie, l'Egypte étant placée sous protectorat Romain, assuré par Marc Antoine durant le trimuvirat qui succède à la mort de César. L'opposition grandissante entre Octave, futur empereur, et Marc Antoine, et la puissance retrouvée de l'Egypte qui inquiète Rome, aboutissent à une guerre ouverte, qui se règle à Actium, à l'est de la Grêce.
La victoire de la flotte d'Octave et de son amiral Agrippa consacre la fin des espoirs militaires de Cléopâtre et Marc-Antoine, qui se suicident. Les derniers prétendant au trône sont vite éliminés et Rome prendra définitivement le contrôle de l'Egypte, gouvernée par un proconsul.
L'armée lagide eut à combattre de multiples adversaires. D'abord les populations voisines, arabes principalement, mais aussi Araméens, sans compter les révoltes des Hilotes, Judéens, Ethiopiens et Nubiens. Ses frontières furent repoussées jusqu'aux limites du tigre, le territoire au-delà étant aux Séleucides. La guerre fit rage entre les deux empires, notamment pour la possession de la Coilè-Syrie, région à la fois stratégique et fortement boisée, ce qui intérressait les deux empires pour leur construction navale. Vers les années 100, un nouvel adversaire se présenta à l'est, profitant de la décomposition de l'empire Séleucide, les Parthes. Ces derniers menaçaient directement les frontières à l'est avant que les Romains n'y mettent un terme lors du premier empire.
La composition de l'armée Lagide changea au cours de son histoire, mais comme dans les autres territoires conquis par les Grecs, son coeur en était toujours la phalange, inexistante chez les Egyptiens et les Perses; Cette dernière était divisée en corps d'expérience, équipements et entraînement variables, allant depuis les haploi sommairement équipés aux agemà royaux, avec comme dénominateur commun un recrutement plutôt greco-macédonien et mercenaire. A ce titre, pour attirer ces soldats de métiers, l'état Lagide mit en place rapidement le système des Clérourquies, qui assuraient aux candidats potentiels une terre, de façon à les fixer et les mélanger dans la population locale. Mais en réalité ces derniers dévoyèrent le système en louant leurs terres et en devenant propriétaire à la ville, constituant une classe privilégiée, d'autant que les "indigènes" en étaient exclus. Avec le temps, les clérourquies devenues héréditaires n'obligeaient plus leurs détenteurs, parfois des filles, à toute participation militaire en échange, et ne créa qu'une aristocratie foncière. Vers la fin de l'empire, le mercenariat simple redevint la norme.
ARCHE PTOLEMAIS
This was 2310 years ago...
The Ptolemies Empire, successor of one of the oldest and most fascinating civilization ever, begun in 334, at the death of Alexander the great. Ptolemy I was one of the nearest Alexander Companion, which father Lagos gave his other name to the Hellenic-Egyptian Lagid dynasty. It was the strongest and longer empire of the diadochis era, surviving a long war against the seleucid empire, but fight also the greek independent cities, the Pontic Kingdom, the Numidian Kingdom and even some Carthaginian or Parthian incursions.
The Lagid army in battle has a classic greek-style composition, with a bunch of pezhetairoi and machimoi phalangitai, a veterans core of agema, some levies phalanxes, some hoplite-style mercenaries auxiliaries, and at the wings, hypaspistai, with some spearmen in a mobile defensive force and assault heavy swordsmen, others hypaspistai, and some auxiliaries, as schock "aethiopions", picked-up axemen from the nubian tribes, and nubian auxiliaries. Behind this large battleline, some archers, including (during the campaign of syria) some syrian long-range archers as auxiliaries, local archers, slingers, and in the front, light skirmishers (akontistai), more experienced peltats, and heavier thuerophoroi. Later, the old hypaspsitai were replaced by fast hoplites and spearmen as the spear thuerophoroi and the thorakitai. A the time of Pompeius and Caesar, the Lagid army comprised a lot of fast warriors as spear Thorakitai and sword thorakitai, the last inspired by the Romans. The wings were guaranteed by a large force of horsesemen, some light scouts, mounted skirmishers, some light lancers and medium cavalry, and a powerful mix of heavy cavalry and hetairoi, the bodyguard cavalry.
It was the last serious threat for the aged Roman Republic, and during the reign of his last queen, the famous Cleopatra VII, Egypt was a Rome client kingdom, almost a protectorate. His defeat mark the beginning of the Roman Empire. After Actium (31 bc), the last giant naval battle of the time, Rome was the master of the mediterranean, from the judean coast to the black sea, and from the adriatic to the Hercules columns. Ptolemies had the biggest armies and the biggest navy in the mediterranean, thanks to a wealthiness which favoured greek migrations. Greeks colonists and Egyptians lived together, and the new Hellenic power was soon aware to keep the existing religion, administration and customs from ancient pharaoes, to give a natural succession feeling to the natives Egyptians, but founded a new capital, Alexandria, which was one of the most famous commercial harbour, and the most prestigious cultural center of its time.
The new Ptolemaic army was defined by a macedonian general, and it had completely new face, which comprised before a mix of foot spearmen, nubians auxiliaries, shock axe infantry, long range archers, and chariots. The Machimoi "soldier", made from native egyptians trained and commanded by Greek or macedonian officers, formed the backbone of the new ptolemaic army, using a white "soft armor". The best phalanxes were made of macedonian or greek mercenaries, or native greek egyptian-born soldiers. The longest campaign involved several huge battles for the possession of the seleucid border coilè-Syria region, famous for his huge forests that the Ptolemaic ship industry needed particulary. Like other macedonian armies, the Ptolemaic force comprised a mix of local troops and a core of loyal greek and macedonian infantry, including a macedonian style cavalry.
Ptolemaioi Strategos
The most unduring hellenistic kingdom :
The Ptolemaic (or Lagid kingdom, from Ptolemaios father, Lagos, a famous Philip II companion), inherited of an excellent situation which was traditional in egyptian history.
First, they could rely a well-defended natural position, between the red sea, with deserts as immediate protection. The ancient egyptian fleet, raised by the persian on modern terms and equipments, was one of the most impressive, but soon, with large subsidiaries thanks to a general prosperous economy and syrian trees, reached a peak. Alexandia naval archives, despite the great library disaster, well well-documented and saved, showing the number of ship and the rank of many of them, which would have been called "cruisers" and "battleships" in modern standards. Simply put, the Ptolemaic navy was a fleet in beeing, which provided an excellent support to the new foreign and strategic motto of Ptolemy and his successors, as to displace far away the borders of the empire, while keeping naval bases and cities of strategic importance throughout the western mediterranean, as far as the thracian coast. This impressive fleet, certainly the largets which ever existed in the mediterranean in antiquity, was still impressive at the very end of this story, in 31 bc at the battle of Actium.
From the southern africa, they were some threat form subjected indigenous egyptians, which after a century, began to rebel agains the central authority, at Alexandria. They were many potential threats of low importance, due to local autonomous kingdoms and tribes. First, the arabian peoples and especially the kingdom of Petra, which could still raise a substantial army and navy and threatening the western coast of the red sea, and some commercial roads with the Sabeans, on the far souther part of the arabian peninsula. Some arabian tribes living on the western coast of the black sea could have been a minor threat also with their impredictable raids. On the deep south, the "blue nile", a local kingdom was still powerful and his links with ancient egyptians strong and antagonistic. These were the so-called "black egyptians", Kushites tribes of the Meroitic kingdom. Despite having some strong stylistic ties with the egyptian art and culture, their tribal army was not a match for the modern steamrolling hellenistic army of ptolemy.
From eastern africa, the Libyans raiders were a threat for local peoples which living on oasis like Siwa. Far more away to the south, the "Nubians" and "ethiopians" have numerous local tribes, but no force with significant power. Only the libyan coast was regularly used by maritime roads, between Cyrene, Appolonia, and Alexandria, and Crete. No piracy was to feared as none was ever mentioned.
The only serious strategic threat came from Syria, where the western part of the Seleucid empire were located. The most active part of both armies were stationed or ready to intervene in this area of strategic importance. First, Coile-Syria was rich, densely populated, benefiting from strong commercial activities thanks to the numerous and dynamic independant phoenician ccity-states. This region was also renowned for its forests and famous cedar which was a first-quality wood for naval construction. This region was also a pivot, a buffer, between africa and orient. So many battles were fought there in a long-enduriong war with few real strategic breakthrough. Until Antiochos III, the seleucids gradually lost their eastern possessions and never had sufficient troops to face an open war with egypt and in its most distant possessions as well...
Second, the way that the greeks were welcomed as liberators in egypt, when Alexander came first. This good behaviour from local population and the smart decision of Ptolemy and his successors to adopt egyptian customs so that there would be an artificial continuity, contributed to settle the new hellenistic monarchy for a long. Despite the "two ranks" social organization and the increasing separation between the new Hellenic elites and the indigenous egyptians, the whole country was already well-deserved and prosperous, the ancient organisation was slightly improved without frictions by the Ptolemies, at least at the beginning. At the very end of this social golden-age (from 200 bc onwards), with more taxes due to the non-ending war in syria, and the cost of the navy, added to the few benefits left for the locals, the southern part of the nile entered in an open rebellion in a large scale A local kingdom was ever founded, and lasted 80 years... The next pharaoh, Ptolemy V epiphanes, succeeded in crushing the rebellion. But this was the beginning of many other uprizings. The troubles reached a new peak until 118 bc between two brothers, claming the throne.
As a final word, Egypt under Hellenistic rule came to an unprecedent period of prosperity and power in the whole eastern mediterranean. The Ptolemies, could have gained the grand prize of the smartest and most efficient economical exploitation of the land. the existing organization was greatly improved, often while decreasing the local autonomy, and the agricultural production reached a new level. Egypt became, more than ever, the granary of the north. Many greek cities, but also Rome, importing large quantities of cereals, made the fortune of hellenistic egypt. Cultivable lands increased and new cultures were introduced, or improved like cotton and wine. The civil troubles which emerged at the most calamitous reign, poised with riots at large scale, corruption, centralization of power and losses of numerous territories and naval bases. The co-reign of Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptomemy XIII was a troubled one, marked by the defiance of Cleopatra toward her brother, and her final expulsion of Alexandria by some royal councillors led by Pothinus. Cleopatra raised new troops and the struggles caused a disastrous harvest this year, which had a direct impact on Roman importations, then in civil war. Defeated Pompey was killed while landing on the egyptian coast by the young Ptolemy to please Cesar, which came as an arbiter between the tow factions. Cleopatra eventually won the full support of Cesar. The story that follows is well known...
Some Hellenistic Egyptian officers. At the beginning, pure macedonian style was a standard, but later, luxurious greek-egyptian style prevailed. Officer dress, cuirasses and ornaments were probably by far the most impressive, reflecting also their personal wealth.
INFANTRY
PANDOTAPOI : Greek settlers of the second generation, immigrants of poor conditions left their homeland, to the promising egyptian new territories. Immigraton was favoured to reinforce the backing of a minority elite which was just a little fraction of the indigenous population, and the central power was dependant on the strong fidelity of the Kleruchs, the original first settlers, which were granted lands and became in fact a new bourgeoisie. Second, third and other waved of greek immigrants often enjoyed a near-low situation as local egyptians. They were citizens, rarely peasants, but when this occured, lived in the vicinity of the Kleros, in a social and economical dependance of the ancient local elites. However, in war, they formed some brigades of local "gendarmerie" (Phylaktoi), equipped with light spears and a light shield. Hoplitic equipment was probably used also, but there are purely conjectural. The typical citizen levy was equipped with a thureos, and the spear was probably the main weapon, with perhaps a light second-rate helmet and a xiphos or dagger for some of them. Some of these greek citizens could also enjoy a better wealth and be part of a local phalanx militia, with good training in a local caserne. But most of the light, basic militias were made of native egyptians, which formed by far the biggest part of the army. Locals militias were raised by villages, equipped in local barracks with weapons and equipments from the royal arsenal. The main equipment of these militia auxiliaries was good, compared to neighbouring kingdoms. They enjoyed some light armor, made of whool and cotton, the famous paddled, quilted armor which was produced far before the greeks came in egypt. A quilted and leather cap, and a wooden thureos formed a good level of protection, and the medium-size spear was a good defensive weapon as well. With a low training, these one-campaign militias were considered as a light support, backing better troops, garrisoning, guarding camps, protecting the rear and the baggage train. In later period, loyalty was particularly bad, and this kind of troop was of mediocre utility in battle, despite a generally good equipment.
PTOLEMAIOI AKONTISTAI :
Alongside the auxiliaries, the "low-greeks", greek origin immigrant of poor condition couldn't expect fightning with sufficient training an equipment in the phalanx. So they were used also as auxiliaries. According to the lightest and cheapest equipment available, they were used as peltasts, slingers, archers. The wealthiest of them were light thureos bearers (a kind of thureophoroi equipped with some javelins and a xyston), a kind of "second-rate thureophoroi", or "levied thureophoroi" in late period (see later). Social divesity was such in peltast recruitments that many thracian origin and native egyptians fought also as akontists. The akontos was the well-known light javelin which could be used with the armentum, allowing really great distances.
PTOLEMAIOI TOXOTAI :
Most of the ptolemaic archers were native egyptians, because of the natural skills of some peoples living along the Nile, chasing local preys in complement to the agriculture. Perhaps some local libyans tribesmen could have been recruited also in these units. Archery was very important to the eyes of ancient egyptians, a crucial part of the warfare, and a weapon of choice. Former royal archers enjoyed an enjoyable social position, and were part of the military elite of the kingdoms. Many elite warriors which choose to fight on chariot, including the Pharaoh himself, enjoyed also a special favour, that native egyptians still have during the hellenistic era. In hellenistic warfare standards, however, archery was a pure subsidiary auxilia, the phalanx still took the lion's part. However, which such local skills, several units of archer were constituted. Average peasant archers, simply knowned as "toxotai" were certainly a big part of these auxiliaries.
MACHIMOI TOXOTAI :
Native egyptian archers of ancient military tradition, which were formerly at the service of the former persian army, were of course, well-trained and well-equipped. Quilted armour and leather caps were standards equipments. A good longbow of great range, and a light sword or dagger as a complement, made them first-class archers, and auxiliaries. Although their status never really improved during these years, they still enjoyed a better social position than peasants turned to auxiliaries. We don't know however if the Ptolemies took advantage of this good and numerous auxiliary unit. We only can guess that they were used to counter the excellent scythian mercenaries used by the seleucids. "Machimoi" means "soldier" in greek but was specially used in Egypt to depict the warrior class among the native population.
PTOLEMAIOI SPHENDONETAI :
Native egyptian slingers were also recruited within the local peoples, but mostly the distant fringes of the Nile, part of the numerous villages neighbouring the desert, that favourize the traditional cattle breeding. Shepherds were traditionnaly equipped with slings, affordable and deadly, and could be used as valuable auxiliaries in this purpose. However, they can't match archers and mercenary slingers like the highly efficient Rhodians which were rarely displayed in Syria. "Machimoi" means "soldier" in greek but was specially used in Egypt to depict the warrior class among the native population.
MACHIMOI KOPISOPHOROI :
Native egyptian "peltasts" were in fact aslo "machairaphoroi" in a sense. These units were constituted from the large amount of semi-regular warriors raise by the former pharaoh in his campaigns, and then professionnalized during the persian rule. They were a part of the former Persan army. Three kind of close combat weapons were used by the egytpians : The spear, the Axe, and the Kopesh. The last was almost as devastating as the axe. It was a characteristic, short saber, with a curved blade in a distinctive crescent shape. Pure slashing weapion, a kind of battle-axe sword of very old origin (probably form sumerian civilization), the Kopesh was the forefather of the Kopis whih evolved from this weapon alongside the machaira. In fact, these auxiliaries were used like the thracians mercenary settlers, in a pure offensive role, but with javelins as complement. We don(t have an mention of "kopeshophoroi" or whatever, but of "machairaphoroi". The Kopisophoroi could have used kopesh, battle-axes, but more likely kopis instead of these crude weapons. The ancient greeks probably assimilated all these saber-like weapons under the same name, "kopis".
PTOLEMAIOI PELTASTAI :
All greek settlers which were not part of the phalanx, and various thracian-origin contingents would have been enlisted also as peltasts. This kind of light infantry was lightly equipped (they have no armor), in order to be fast, but their protective equipment was very good. A chalcidian, attic or the heavyer thracian helmet (which came in great popularity later, due to its excellent protection), a large and thick thureos, all in wood and covered by a painted linen cover on leather, reinforced by a central spine, as it evolved more from celtic thureos than from thracian peltè. They have also greaves, and valuable weapoons. As skirmishers, they still favoured javelins, but they can take part of a close combat with a sword, usually a xiphos, but sometimes a kopis or even a machaira. Well equipped and well-trained, they formed the most valuable part of the fast-moving units. Later , some were equipped with only boots and no greaves, a smaller thureos, and fight with only a spear and a machaira, or the three weapons at once (like the levied thureophoroi).
PTOLEMAIOI THUREOPHOROI :
They were, by far, the backbone of the medium infantry as soon as 280 bc. A fast moving, easy to equip but also with better equipment and training than any peltasts, the thureophoroi were primarily used as spearmen, as they derived from the short-lived iphikratean hoplites, in fact light phalangites from the peloponnesian era. The thureophoroi were heavyer than the iphikrates, which were basically peltasts equipped with short sarissas. They wore greaves, an heavy helmet, probably of thracian style and often plumed, an armor, but late thureophoroi were depicted also as wearing boots and a tunic only. This was in fact, a late, romanized-influenced version of the thureophoroi, also called "levied" or "haploi", which was cheaper and can be recruited in far more numbers. Traditional thureophoroi were given greater protection than average phalangites, due to their larger thureos, but that restricted the lenghet of their spear to those of the xyston, maned with one hand over head. They completed this by a xiphos short sword, or a machaira, more effective in close combat, but far more cumbersome.
PTOLEMAIOI THORAKITAI :
A classical evolution of the Thureophoroi, they were a modernised version, using a chainmail or a scale armor. Basically their tactics dosen't changed, but it is still a mystery while speaking about their hability to carry javelins, a xyston and a sword as well. Few descriptions are available but one from Polibyus decribing the way that achaian thureophoroi, under command of Philipoemen, defeated spartans, while using peltasts skirmishing, and then regroup in another position and use the spears left there to form a phalanx. Perhaps one day a reenactment would throw some light on this tactic. However, the thorakitai were well-knowned and described in service laterly in the ptolemaic army, alongside romanized troops under the influence of 140 bc reforms, some using javelins and a machaira instead. A specially trained elite unit of veteran was ultimately chosen to became the official ptolemaic royal elite unit (see later, basilikon agema).
PTOLEMAIOI MACHAIRAPHOROI :
The machaira is primarily a cavalry weapon. Its saber-shape was used to deliver formidable blows at close quarters, after the first clash of the charge. Compared to the kopis, it was longer, heavyer, and more strait. The edge was more rounded, making it a pure slashing device. Following Diodotos reforms, they became more "romanized" when elite units of veterans were chosen to be equipped like thorakitai, with chainmails. Although this kind of infantry was now in large numbers in some manipluar-like units, these units were still 256-strong like regular "lochoi", and they never replaced the phalanx which was still the sledgehammer. This late infantry was well-decribed through the stele of Sidon graffiti, among others, but never its tactics nor its numbers were ever known, and they were not serioulsy tested in battle. Mithridate of Pontus raised similar units when facing the Romans, but they were compltely crushed by the firm discipline, experience, training and implacable effectivness of the Roman legions.
PTOLEMAIOI THUREOPHOROI HAPLOI :
This kind of "light thureophoroi" was in fact, the late reformed successor infantry, created in a time of relative peace and under strong roman influence. At that time, the Macedonian phalanx was battered several times by the legions, this would have a tremendous impact on the hellenistic world which barly changed during tow centuries, as tactics were unimaginative and less complex than during the alexandrian era. Auxiliary units like the thureophoroi, and other derivatives, all using the thureos shield were soon the greater part of the army, but the phalanx remains, until the end, the only "reliable" heavy unit in all. The proportion of light units however greatly increase, and soon the equipment decrease as well in favor of greater number of fast-moving troops. Alongside the machairaphoroi were a kind of light thureos infantry using a xyston as a primary weapon. These "levied" thureophoroi were in fact, defensive, cheaper units with were have been used alongside the left part of the Phalanx, and the wings, capable of avoiding any flanking move by the enemy. This was a greek adaptation of the fast-operating legions. Also, these late units were never seriously tested in battle at this time.
PTOLEMAIOI EPIBATAI :
The Ptolemaic navy was by far the biggest in the mediterranean and in antiquity, superior the the roman navy in many ways but still using classic tactics as the diekplous, periplous, and the ramming was still the main tactic. So the biggest was the ship, the most tremendous was its impact. Hellenistic warships were unrivalled giants. The Romans never goes so far in this way, their units, beeing heavy, slow and cumbersome, relying mostly on boarding assault, preferring the skills of their legions to their mastery of naval tactics. The ptolemaic navy reached the peak of its power roughly during the reign of Ptolemy Philopator. Then, an acount of the fleet, discovered at Alexandria, mentioned a large number of trieres, which were still the backbone of any navy at this time, but they were reinforced by many "cruisers" in moderrn standards, units above the 6 men by rowing section (up to three levels), and from there to 20. The two "30" were probaby two-deckers, as well as the gigantic "40" or tesseracontere, described as housing no less than 3000 men on board. These gigantic ships were intended to take the lead of the fleet and make a spectacular breakthrough, allowing other lighter ships to surround and outmanoeuvering enemy ships. Marine infantry, since the peloponesian wars, was made of standard hoplites and some scythian archers as complement. The xyston was not adapted to the boarding assaults and the epibatai became less heavily equipped, relying mostly on a large shield and a machaira or xiphos, perhaps launching some javelins before boeading the bridge...
PTOLEMAIOI PHALANGITAI HAPLOI :
The greek citizens in egypt which were wealthy enough were equipped and trained to be part of the lievied phalanx. It was a well-trained, old macedonian style levy, capable of marching in close formation, perform turns, and fast pace or even running while maintaining their cohesion, one of the most skillfull and feared tactics of the phalanx. As always, this units was nearly unbreakable and implacable for any enemy facing them, on foot or horse. But their light equipment was not proof of javelins, slingstones, or especially arrows. They had light composite or linen armors, a light shield, no greaves and a light konos or phrygian helmet. But they manned formidable five to six meters pikes, and this made the difference.
MACHIMOI PHALANGITAI :
The diadochi never trusted the locals enough to recruit them in the phalanx. The short-lived "Epigonoi" were the only attempt from Alexander the great to complete the depleted ranks of his pezhetairoi by persians trained in the macedonian fashion. It is no doubt that they would have performed the task with discipline, but their poor loyalty to alexander successors, the defiance of the macedonian towards these supposedly "decadent" and "soft" peoples, alongside the fact that they would have used the phalanx against its former master in case of uprizing, prevented, after Alexander's death, any move in this way. They were only an attempt, at Raphia, when Ptolemy decided, prior to the battle, to enlist and train numerous natives into the phalanx to complete its strenght. Although less-well trained, lightly equipped, they fought bravely and stood their ground against seleukos attacks, and finally won the day with other units. After that, the Machimoi phalanx was partially dismissed, but the idea became a rule. They were few wide-scale battles later, but machimoi phalangistes were always used on the syrian front, as uprizings emerged soon after among natives.
PTOLEMAIOI KLERUCHOI PHALANGITAI :
All greek settlers which were not part of the phalanx, and various thracian-origin contingents would have been enlisted also as peltasts. This kind of light infantry was lightly equipped (they have no armor), in order to be fast, but their protective equipment was very good. A chalcidian, attic or the heavyer thracian helmet (which came in great popularity later, due to its excellent protection), a large and thick thureos, all in wood and covered by a painted linen cover on leather, reinforced by a central spine, as it evolved more from celtic thureos than from thracian peltè. They have also greaves, and valuable weapoons. As skirmishers, they still favoured javelins, but they can take part of a close combat with a sword, usually a xiphos, but sometimes a kopis or even a machaira. Well equipped and well-trained, they formed the most valuable part of the fast-moving units. Later , some were equipped with only boots and no greaves, a smaller thureos, and fight with only a spear and a machaira, or the three weapons at once (like the levied thureophoroi).
PTOLEMAIOI PEZHETAIROI :
All greek settlers which were not part of the phalanx, and various thracian-origin contingents would have been enlisted also as peltasts. This kind of light infantry was lightly equipped (they have no armor), in order to be fast, but their protective equipment was very good. A chalcidian, attic or the heavyer thracian helmet (which came in great popularity later, due to its excellent protection), a large and thick thureos, all in wood and covered by a painted linen cover on leather, reinforced by a central spine, as it evolved more from celtic thureos than from thracian peltè. They have also greaves, and valuable weapoons. As skirmishers, they still favoured javelins, but they can take part of a close combat with a sword, usually a xiphos, but sometimes a kopis or even a machaira. Well equipped and well-trained, they formed the most valuable part of the fast-moving units. Later , some were equipped with only boots and no greaves, a smaller thureos, and fight with only a spear and a machaira, or the three weapons at once (like the levied thureophoroi).
PTOLEMAIOI CHRYSASPIDAI AGEMA :
All greek settlers which were not part of the phalanx, and various thracian-origin contingents would have been enlisted also as peltasts. This kind of light infantry was lightly equipped (they have no armor), in order to be fast, but their protective equipment was very good. A chalcidian, attic or the heavyer thracian helmet (which came in great popularity later, due to its excellent protection), a large and thick thureos, all in wood and covered by a painted linen cover on leather, reinforced by a central spine, as it evolved more from celtic thureos than from thracian peltè. They have also greaves, and valuable weapoons. As skirmishers, they still favoured javelins, but they can take part of a close combat with a sword, usually a xiphos, but sometimes a kopis or even a machaira. Well equipped and well-trained, they formed the most valuable part of the fast-moving units. Later , some were equipped with only boots and no greaves, a smaller thureos, and fight with only a spear and a machaira, or the three weapons at once (like the levied thureophoroi).
PTOLEMAIOI BASILIKON AGEMATA :
All greek settlers which were not part of the phalanx, and various thracian-origin contingents would have been enlisted also as peltasts. This kind of light infantry was lightly equipped (they have no armor), in order to be fast, but their protective equipment was very good. A chalcidian, attic or the heavyer thracian helmet (which came in great popularity later, due to its excellent protection), a large and thick thureos, all in wood and covered by a painted linen cover on leather, reinforced by a central spine, as it evolved more from celtic thureos than from thracian peltè. They have also greaves, and valuable weapoons. As skirmishers, they still favoured javelins, but they can take part of a close combat with a sword, usually a xiphos, but sometimes a kopis or even a machaira. Well equipped and well-trained, they formed the most valuable part of the fast-moving units. Later , some were equipped with only boots and no greaves, a smaller thureos, and fight with only a spear and a machaira, or the three weapons at once (like the levied thureophoroi).
CAVALRY
PTOLEMAIOI HIPPAKONTISTAI :
Light cavalry still largely in use, raised among poor greek settlers, mostly from the peasantry, skilled horsemen and trained to used hit-and-run tactics. None was good as this than the original arabian cavalrymen nearby excellent raiders.
PTOLEMAIOI KLERUCHOI PRODROMOI :
The Cleruch were wealthy enough to afford local horses, fast and nervous. They were well-equipped and could form better protected units than the average mounted javelinmen from the peasantry or native cavalrymen; Most of them were ancient-origin thracian settlers (since perhaps two or three generation of mercenaries), which perpetuated their excellent skills. Nomainally, they were mounted heavy peltasts, capable also to fight dismounted. They relied on speed, javelins, and a deadly machaira for close-combat and a wide thureos.
PTOLEMAIOI KLERUCHOI HIPPEIS :
Native cavalrymen were renown, and egyptian cavalry, alongside ancient charioteers, was always well-considered and efficient, fast, manoeuvrable, sturdy, and reliable, a force to be reckoned with. Like other natives, they could afford light quilted armors, and were using various weapons, but the infantry short spear and various swords, like the machaira and the kopis and derivative, were prized. They were used as screen forces, scouts, pursuing forces for routed units, and to counter enemy light cavalry, as they were fast enough, with good training.
PTOLEMAIOI XYSTOPHOROI :
This late cavalry was seen as a good complement to the depleted forces of hetairoi. Although far lighter than the elite heavy cavalry, they used a long xyston and were primarily a shock cavalry. The Macedonoa, and greek-born Cleruchs formed the bulk of these units, which were the most numerous outside mounted auxiliaries, at some point. They were used at following and reinforcing the hetairoi charge by their sheer numbers and excellent agility, renewing their charge again and again, hammering without mercy the enemy flanks and rear, until they collapse, or striking at the good angle and right time to ensure the decisive blow, depending of the skills of their Hipparkontarkos...
PTOLEMAIOI KLERUCHOI EPILEKTOI
Such cavalry was recruited of greek colonists, the wealthiest among the Kleruchs, part of the local "good society" and notables. They held huge domains with many slaves and indigenous population, and their equipment was onf the best available. As this, they were a good complement to the depleted Hetairoi, and formed the bulk of the heavy cavalry. Lavish helmets, greaves, bronze and iron breasplate or lighter scale ones, were usual. They were equipped with xystons and machaira for close combat. Their horses were tall but fast and they were very well trained with an excellent morale.
PTOLEMAIOI BASILIKON AGEMATA (early bodyguards);
This prestigious unit of nobles was the macedonian old core of the hetairoi, the basilike ilè. They were companions of the king, the pharaoh, with the best equipment around. Although not cataphracts, they had a tremendous schock power and excellent stamina. They were a very few however, in the whole cavalry, beeing 300 in all, like the ancient Royal elite hetairoi units.
PTOLEMAIOI BASILIKON AGEMATA (late bodyguards);
Around 140-150 bc, after the ascepiodotos reforms, the royal cavalry was still a little elite unit of 300 men, close companions of the king and "philoi", but they were less mobile and more heavily armored, becoming half-cataphracts in the seleucid style. The parthian threat was not seriously taken, but the huge amounts of horse-archers in the seleucid army, accostumed to fight the parthians, was the main reason, as the threat of native efyptian revolts, which counted usually many archers of excellent skills.
AUXILIARIES
JUDAIOI THUREOPHOROI : During the very long war or Syria, both the Seleucids and Ptolemaics kepts for a time the Palestine, and the kingdom of Judea. One of the best troops to be raised locally were judean auxiliaries. Most of them were equipped in a hellenized way, with the typical phrygian helmet, thureos, greaves, light quilted or linen armor, and kopis sword. They were used as peltasts or more versatile "thureophoroi" as these, fighting with a spear and in a sword in close-combat. It was versatile, disciplined and though infantry, settled in great numbers with many provided advantages, on the north-west frontier.
SYRIAKOI TOXOTAI :
These syrians were also "settled" mercenaries in egyptian lands. They were part of the regular prolemaic army as auxiliaries. The syrians archers were the most feared heavy archers in the near-east. With their powerful and large composite bow, excellent skills both with archery and swordsmanship, they can outrange and defeat any "psiloi", and match the seleucids mercenary scythians on equal terms...
KLERUCHOI THRAIKOI PRODROMOI : These settled mercenary cavalrymen were like galatian cavalrymen, an important part of the auxiliary cavalry in battle. They were a kind of mounted heavy peltast, fightning with javelins, a kopis, axe or even falx, and can defeat many light cavalry and infantry units with ease.
KLERUCHOI GALATOI : These settled mercenary infantrymen were celtic mercenaries from Galatia, were a lot of them settled in 280 bc, after King Prusias invited their chief. Galatian warriors were brave, seacrhing for personal glory and paid a lot for their main task, with was to be use as an expendable shock troop, with better effect on auxiliaries than a phalanx... Average warriors were young, unprotected, with medium swords, light javelins and light scutum. They can perform heavy skirmisher duties and fight in melee as well.
KLERUCHOI EPILEKTOI GALATOI : These settled elite mercenary infantrymen were older mercenaries, like veterans hired in a regular basis, and then offered a Kleros after years of honourable duty. This was an award for their valor and loyalty as well, and a way to have permanently a bunch of experience heavy infantrymen for all occurences of war.
AETHIOPIOI PANDOTAPOI : "Ethiopians" were recruited among various tribes on the red sea, and on the southern part of the Nile. The Kushites were famous providers of mercenaries.
PTOLEMAIOI NUBIAIOI PELTASTAI :
The prolemaic kingdom enlisted many auxiliaries and mercenaries from the saharian and the kushite kingdom, which provided many slaves, just as in the ancient egypt. The Nubian tribals were tamed warriors, it was almost a lifestyle. They used mostly short spears both for thrusting and launching. They were also accostumed to the harsh conditions of the desert, and skilled adversaries.
MERCENARIES
MISTOPHOROI PHALANGITAI : Greek mercenaries were not all peltasts or hoplites. Some former soldiers of the various greek armies (macedon, thrace, achaian and aetolian leagues, epiros, etc...) which found no jobs, particularly after the fall of Perseus'sunder roman arms, were always sure to find a zealous ptolemaic recruitment agent nearby... The aeternal war of coele-syria was always in need of fresh flesh, and the lagids were notoriously generous clients... These mercenary phalanxes were composed of various soldiers, including former peltasts which found this way of fightning more suitable, as the equipment was often of second-hand. As the cleruch equipment was standardised and severly controlled, mercenary phalanx came "as they were", the only obligation was for the officer to class them in the ranks of the lochoi amongst age, experience and equipment quality criterions. (the best were often on the front and left flank, the most weakened)... The most affordable cuirass was probably the quilted one, a bit hotty under the sun of syria, but perhaps less iritating and lighter than linothorax and bronze cuirasses. They were also given a sword, generally a xyphos which was much more affordable and less cumbersome than the kopis. Greaves were of various qualities but almost an obligation for front lines phalangists, and they were given light shields from various qualities, which offered more a symbolic than real protection against missiles. The most affordable helmet was the mass-produced ogival bottian or pylos-derived helmets, but the need of cheek-guards and even facial masks prompted the choice of the popular phrygian-thracian model, and they were always large stocks of used boeotian and chalcidian or attic, old second-hand helmets.
MISTOPHOROI PELTASTAI
MISTOPHOROI HOPLITAI : Although old-fashioned, greek hoplites were sometimes hired as mercenaries, but less in time, as the phalanx was proven quite superior to them. Most of these were probably using thureos instead, and fight with javelins as a complement, as thureophoroi infantry, and eventually replaced them.
MISTOPHOROI LIBYAIOI : Living west of the Nile, mostly around hilltops and harsh relief which provided some shadow and water, and around oasis, these tribesmen were hardy and reputed. As such, they were hired as mercenaries bot by Carthage and the Egyptians. Versatile, they used various weapons but counted mostly skirmisher and light spearmen. We have various depictions of the ancient lybians. Herodotus said that most of them were relatively fair-skinned, with thick braided hairs, almost nude with a wide cloak and tattoes. But western and eastern "libyans" were quite different anyway.
MISTOPHOROI GARAMANTOI : Although living relatively far away from the egyptian influence area, the Garamantine were reputed raiders and disciplined warriors, this people was capable of fielding large armies quickly, for raids massive against the troglodytae. The carthaginians hirde them in large quantities.
RHODIOI HOPLITAI : The Rhodians were famous for their impressive units of epibatai and hoplites, and rich enough to afford one of the most powerful navy of their time. After the Ptolemaic navy has faded (after macedonian defeat and division by the romans), the rhodians became de facto the maritime police of the western mediterranean. However, they were famous since a long time for their slingers, which were soon created to cope with the persian archers. Rhodians slingers used lead swift-shaped bullets instead of stones. Although beeing far less easy to produce, and a limited ammo, their range were superior, more accurate and deadly than any other slinger unit in the known world. Their capacity to deal with the impressive eastern archers rendered them very efficient, and still cheap units, although in limited numbers. It is not impossible also that the name of "rhodian slinger" was given to slingers for various origins equipped in a similar way, just as the "cretans", or "tarentines", or more famously the "peltasts".
MISTOPHOROI KUSHITOI : As described by Herodotus when hired by the myghty persian empire, the tribal warriors from the kushite kingdom were described as half painted in vermillion and white. As in the past, they were fierce and versatile, used mostly as a heavy skirmisher infantry, fightning with clubes, axe and various short spears.
NUBIAIOI EPILEKTOI : Cosen warriors among regular nubian troops, settled in egypt, and used as auxiliaries, mostly as crack attack warbands.
MISTOPHOROI NUBIAIOI : Tribesmen from variopus subsaharian regions, they transited by the Nile, and were provided by the Meroitic kingdom.
